Fiber optik kablolar, verileri ışık hızında taşıyarak, yüksek hızda ve düşük gecikme süresi ile iletişimi mümkün kılıyor. Bu, özellikle veri merkezleri, araştırma tesisleri ve teknoloji şirketleri gibi yoğun veri trafiği olan kurumlar için hayati önem taşıyor. Bilişim adaları, sundukları bu hızlı ve güvenilir bağlantı sayesinde, global dijital ekonomide rekabetçi bir konuma ulaşabiliyor.

Dijital dönüşümün merkez üssü haline gelmeyi hedefleyen bir bölge için fiber altyapı yatırımları, sadece teknolojik bir gereklilik değil, aynı zamanda bir ekonomik kaldıraç görevi de görüyor. Fiber altyapısı, yüksek teknoloji şirketlerini çekmekle kalmıyor, aynı zamanda eğitim, sağlık hizmetleri ve kamu hizmetleri gibi diğer önemli sektörlerde de dijital inovasyonu teşvik ediyor.

Fiber altyapı yatırımlarının ekonomik getirileri, bilişim adası olma hedefine ulaşmak için atılacak adımların sadece başlangıcını oluşturuyor. Gerçek zamanlı veri analizi, bulut bilişim ve yapay zeka gibi teknolojilerle entegre bir şekilde, fiber altyapıların kurulması, bir bölgenin dijital dönüşümde öncü olmasını sağlayacak temel taşları teşkil ediyor.

Tayfun Aydınlı 05/09/2024

 

Bir ağın düzenlenmesi, bileşenleri arasında tutarlı bir şekilde çalışmasına, öncelikleri ve çatışmaları yönetmesine izin veren bir dizi birlikte çalışabilirlik kuralının tanımına dayanır.

Tüm aktörler tarafından gözlemlenen minimum kurallar olmadan ağ da olmaz. İnternet, bu demir yasanın bir istisnası değildir ve herhangi bir kolektif özgürlük alanı gibi, bugün İnternet'i ortaklaşa düzenleyen bir kuruluşlar ağı tarafından düzenlenen çok sayıda kural ve düzenlemeye tabidir.

İnternetin düzenlenmesi, bilimsel aygıtların bağrında doğmuş, merkezi olmayan bir ağ için teknik ilkelerin ve idari kuralların geliştirildiği hem yeni hem de zengin dönemeçlerle dolu bir tarihin sonucudur.

Geleneksel düzenleme ve uluslararası standardizasyon sistemlerinin sınırlarında yapılar geliştirmeye çalışan özel girişimlere aşamalı olarak devredilmiştir.

Geleneksel yapıların bu atlanması, ilk olarak, bu cihazlarda standartların geliştirilmesinin yavaşlığı ile açıklanmaktadır. Bu da İnternet ile ilgili teknolojilerdeki yenilik hızıyla uyumsuzdur.

Bu tepki süresi sorununa ek olarak, bu kuruluşların bazı standartları ve teknik ilkeleri destekledikleriyle rekabet eden İnternet'in özel mantığını anlamada karşılaştıkları zorlukla iç içeydi.

Aynı zamanda, uluslararasılaşma yönündeki açık bir eğilime rağmen, oyuncularının çoğu bugün Kuzey Amerika doğasıyla da açıklanabilir.

Son olarak, İnternet teknisyenlerinin ve girişimcilerin liberal ideolojisi, sırasıyla devlet veya uluslararası bürokrasilere karşı içgüdüsel bir güvensizliği açıklar.

Her halükarda, çağdaş İnternet, dağınık bir düzende de olsa Devletlerin ortak müdahalesi, becerileri çok sayıda profesyonel kuruluş ve çok dinamik ama kırılgan teknik standardizasyon mekanizmaları tarafından fiili olarak düzenlenmektedir.

İnterneti düzenleyen kurumsal çerçeve zayıflıklarla işaretlenmiş görünüyorsa, iyileştirme yollarını düşünmeden önce ön koşul, İnterneti düzenleme ihtiyacını sorgulamaktır.

Birçok kişi, minimum teknik düzenlemenin, yani açık standartların yayınlanması ve adreslemenin şeffaf yönetimi gibi, hiçbir düzenlemenin gerekli olmadığını, çünkü rekabetin, temel kaynakların bolluğunun ve merkezi olmayan bir şekilde yapılandırma yeteneğinin, onun güvenliğini sağlamak için yeterli araçları oluşturduğunu düşünüyor.

Merkezi olmayan zekâsı ve ağın modüler doğası göz önüne alındığında, tekel gücünü kullanma girişimi, yeni operatörlerin girişiyle bertaraf edilebilir. İçerik ve hizmetler ise kişisel tercihlere göre kişiselleştirilebilmekte ve içerik düzenlemesine gerek kalmamaktadır.

Daha genel olarak, İnternet için düzenlemenin yararsızlığı, dijital faaliyetlerin kıtlık kısıtlamalarından mustarip olmadığı ve giriş engellerinin sanal olarak yokluğu ile işaretlendiği varsayımına dayanmaktadır.

Bu hipotezlere geri dönersek ve diğer unsurları göz önünde bulundurursak, kıtlık kısıtlamalarının varlığı, dışsallıklar ve rekabetin canlılığına yönelik tehditler nedeniyle hem ağ hizmetleri hem de içerik açısından İnternet'in düzenlenmesini talep edebiliriz.

Haklı olarak, araştırmacılar, İnternette kıtlık kaynakları olduğuna dikkat çekiyor. Ayrıca, bunları ticaret öncesi İnternet'te yönetmek için benimsenen çözümlerin artık çok sayıda insana hizmet veren bir İnternet'te mutlaka meşru ve uygulanabilir olmadığını belirtiyorlar.

İnternet kıtlığının ilk kaynağı adresleme sistemidir.

Makine tanımlama sisteminin gerekli standardizasyonu ve hiyerarşisi nedeniyle, bir dağıtım sorununun kaynağında sınırlı sayıda kök vardır.

Çin Halk Cumhuriyeti'nden daha fazla IP adresi oluşturma kapasitesine sahip olan Stanford Üniversitesi örneğinden sıklıkla bahsedilir.

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Bu, öncekinin mevcut adresleme sistemini tasarlarken çok sayıda makine adresini kendi kullanımı için ayırması fırsatından kaynaklanmaktadır.

Üçüncü nesil İnternet'e geçişle birlikte, daha büyük kapasitelere sahip bir adresleme sistemi kullanıma sunulmuş ve bu da sonunda makine adresleri üzerindeki bu kıtlık kısıtlamasını kaldırmıştır.

Temelde kıt olan kaynak aslında alan adları tarafındadır. Anlamlı adresler oluşturmanın mümkün olduğu doğal dil sözcüklerinin veya ifadelerinin sayısı sınırlıdır. Ayrıca, önemli çıkar çatışması sorunları vardır.

Bu alanda, bu isimlerin İnternet'te münhasır kullanımının atfedilmesi ile diğer alanlarda kullanımlarının zaten rezerve edilmiş olabileceği veya başka bir şekilde bireysel olarak uygun görülmediği gerçeği arasında hem kıtlık hem de çelişki vardır.

Ayrıca, İnternet'in küresel doğası, daha önce farklı alanlarda faaliyet gösteren aynı adı taşıyan meşru kullanıcılar arasında çatışmalar yaratır.

İnternetteki ikinci kıtlık kaynağı, mevcut ulaşım kapasitesidir. Belirli bir anda ister ara bağlantı noktaları ister sunucular olsun, altyapıların yanı sıra ağdaki kritik düğümlerin kapasitesi ile sınırlıdır. Daha sonra, ele alınan ufka bağlı olarak iki tür sorun ortaya çıkar.

İlk olarak, her bir anda bant genişliği kıtlığını tahsis etmek için bir kriter belirlemek gerekir. Daha sonra, İnternet tarafından iletilen bilgi paketlerinin otomatik olarak mevcut kapasiteleri kullanması nedeniyle kapasitelerini geliştirmeye teşvik edilmelidir.

Ticari İnternet'te, çeşitli bilgi alışverişlerine verilecek önceliklerin yönetilmesi konusu, gerçek zamanın önemli olduğu hizmetlerin kalitesi için özellikle önemlidir: telefon, video konferans, görsel-işitsel yayıncılık, vb.  Bazı endüstriyel ve ticari uygulamalar için de önemli olabilir.

İkincisi, mübadelenin tüm boyutlarının, özellikle hizmet kalitesinin, esasen çeşitli bilgi akışlarına verilecek öncelik kurallarının müzakere edildiği eksiksiz bir pazarın organize edilmesinden ve bu pazarın rekabetçi kalmasını sağlamaktan ibarettir.

İnternet ve yüksek teknolojinin değerlerindeki hızlı düşüş dünyanın geri kalanını kurtaramadı. 2000 yılında telekomünikasyon ve bilgisayar sektörleri Dünya Endeksi'nde ortalama %41'den fazla kayıp yaşadı. 2001 yılının başından bu yana, borsa değerlerindeki artışın sadece spekülatif bir internet balonu olduğu neredeyse tüm yorumcular tarafından kabul görmüş görünüyor.    

Bu yazımızda, geçmişten günümüze yeni ekonominin geleceğini ortaya koyma veya internet ekonomisinin finansal ve endüstriyel evrimini ortaya koyma iddiasında değiliz.   Bunun yerine, burada, özellikle beş konuya bakarak, İnternet'in yeni işletmelerin finanse edilme şeklini nasıl değiştirdiğine ışık tutmayı amaçlıyoruz:   (i) İnternetin Avrupa'daki risk sermayesi endüstrisinin işleyişi ve rolü üzerindeki etkisi; (ii) Finansörler ve internete yeni başlayan girişimciler arasındaki temsilcilik sorunları (iii) Şirketlerin ilk halka arzları; (iv) Sermaye yapılarının özelliği; (v) Bunların değerlemesi için kullanılan teknikler.

İNTERNET VE GİRİŞİM SERMAYESİ   Geçmişe baktığımızda, risk sermayesi için açık ara en eski ve en büyük pazar olan Amerika Birleşik Devletleri'nde, bu tür yatırımlar 1998 ile 2000 arasında beş kat arttı.   Birkaç yıl içinde, internet girişimlerine yatırılan miktarlar, risk sermayesinden yararlanan diğer sektörlerde gözlemlenenden çok daha yüksek oldu.   Fonların %95'i Amerikan risk sermayesine yatırıldı ve 50 milyar doların üzerine çıktı. 2000 yılında, %80'den fazlası internet girişimlerine giden yüksek teknolojili girişimlere yönlendirildi.   Bununla birlikte, 2000 yılının yazından bu yana açık bir düşüş gözlemlendi. Yatırımların son dalgalanma öncesine göre daha yüksek bir seviyede istikrar kazanıp kazanmayacağını söylemek için henüz çok erkendi.   Avrupa'da, Avrupa Girişim Sermayesi Birliği tarafından her yıl yayınlanan rakamlar, risk sermayesi sektörünün orada ABD'dekinden çok daha az gelişmiş olduğunu ortaya koyuyor.   Ayrıca, rakamları doğrudan Amerikan rakamlarıyla karşılaştırılamayacak bir düzeltme yapılmalıdır. Çünkü bunlar sadece tam anlamıyla risk sermayesini, yani start-up'ların finansmanını değil, aynı zamanda daha olgun şirketlerin finansmanını da içermemektedir.   Yönetim satın alımları veya yeniden yapılandırma, özel sermaye olarak adlandırılan operasyonlardır.   Sadece yüksek teknolojili start-up'lar için finansman operasyonlarını hesaba katarsak, o zaman Amerikan risk sermayesi ile karşılaştırılabilir bir rakamo olarak, yatırımlar 1999'da 8,9 milyar Euro'ya ulaştı, yani toplamın sadece %25'ine tekabül ediyor.  

Ancak Avrupa'daki rakam, yalnızca 1999'da güçlü bir şekilde büyüyordu. Avrupa risk sermayesi sektörünün toplam yatırımlarının bir yüzdesi olarak değerlendirildiğinde, yüksek teknoloji start-up'larına yapılan yatırımlar aynı yıl içinde %23'ten %35'e yükseldi.    

Ayrıca, kesin dökümü bilinmeden, tüm kaynaklar, İnternet'in Avrupa'da girişim sermayesi tarafından yeni kurulan girişimlerin finansmanındaki bu hızlı evrimin ana itici gücü olduğu konusunda hemfikirdir.   Risk sermayesi yatırımlarının hızlı büyümesini anlamak için, bu tür yatırımların çekicilik derecesini dikkate almalıyız. Getirilerin tarihsel karşılaştırmalarında, risk sermayesi, adından da anlaşılacağı gibi, yalnızca riski üstlenmeye istekli yatırımcılar için değil, aynı zamanda daha ihtiyatlı bir şekilde çeşitlendirilmiş yatırımcılar için de son derece kazançlı bir yatırım gibi görünmektedir.  

Amerikan sermaye piyasaları için tanınmış bir kaynak verilerine göre, Amerikan risk sermayesi 1960 ve 1995 yılları arasında yıllık ortalama %45 oranında geri dönecekti.   Daha sonra, halka arz piyasasının ivmesi altında bu karlılık daha da yüksek seviyelere ulaştı. Ayrıca, risk sermayesi getirileri, borsa getirileri ile pratik olarak ilişkisizdir.   Bu, getirinin risksiz varlık seviyesinde olması gerektiği anlamına gelir. Yani, Amerikan piyasası için, uzun vadede yaklaşık %4 ortalama söz konusudur. Ancak bu rakamlar bazı tartışmalara yol açmaktadır.   Sonuç olarak, risk sermayesi bir gizemi saklıyorsa, bunun nedeni son dönemde gözlemlenen istisnai büyüme değildir.

Kaynak Linki = https://www.kibrishabersitesi.com/haber/avrupada-internet-kuruluslarinin-gecmisi-78957

The ubiquitous advertising on most Internet sites can be considered a special case of exploiting network effects by sites that offer it.

Indeed, the value of the service for consumers depends on the amount of advertising. The value of an ad depends on the number of users who will see it. This corresponds to the idea of ​​the indirect network effect.

An example of a site that uses ad revenue in this way is Buy, an online supermarket that offers discounted items such as computers, software, books, videos, travel, and music.

This site encourages its use as an advertising tool, allowing it to offer discounts to consumers.

Advertising on the Internet can be tailored to the customer's purchasing behavior. Such a strategy cannot be used as effectively as in traditional discount supermarkets.

Because each new subscriber to a site generates ad revenue, subscribers can switch from customer status to resource status for a site.

This may justify providing the service for free and even offering negative prices or free services to customers.

The effective cost per subscriber for the site is negative if a new subscriber brings advertising revenue even though it costs the site. In this case, the site may therefore offer “negative prices”.

The impact of ad revenue financing on site entry and profitability remains an open question. If there is competition, it will tend to wipe out profits and pass on the benefit of advertising revenue to consumers. Therefore, its impact on company profit is uncertain.

It depends on the link between audience and ad revenue. Advertising finance offers a kind of economies of scale, especially when ad revenues are very sensitive to the audience. (revenue per listener increases with audience size)

In this case, the net unit cost of ad revenue per subscriber decreases with the viewership. A market that can compete without advertising financing may be highly concentrated because of this financing alone.

The second point is that on a theoretical level, advertising revenue and financing problems are very similar to product quality selection problems. From the point of view of a site's users, advertisements are one of the features of the service provided, the value of which can be positive or negative.

This is actually a dimension of service quality. As long as one interprets the value of income as negative (opportunity) cost, one obtains a quality model.

The ad can take a vertical (screen footprint) and horizontal (related products) size. Accordingly, the traditional consequences of quality choices should be looked at.

Particularly those related to product differentiation need to be expanded to a certain extent, with advertising choices serving as differentiation tools.

The difference is that the advertising medium is much more flexible than other quality choices, and vertical and horizontal dimensions are intertwined on the internet.

Some sites offer paid services with little or no ads, while others offer free services with ads. This corresponds to more vertical differentiation.

A horizontal dimension appears when sites target specific categories of users by selecting appropriate ads for them.

One of the innovations is the customization of services. With sponsorship opportunities, each user can be individually targeted with ads for special interests.

The horizontal and vertical distinction may later turn out to be irrelevant. Instead, advertising becomes an instrument of affirmative action. So, discrimination is not a priority.

It is clear that the role of web advertising is still evolving. We can expect to see innovations in this area. An open question is the capacity of such resources to finance the long-term development of activities on the Internet.

As a matter of fact, if we collect all revenues at the sector level, the financing of Internet advertising. must come from the revenues that this industry can generate because of the value of goods and services offered to individuals or companies.

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Currently, while sites like Yahoo profitably leverage ad revenue, most sites don't and don't cover their costs.

Conclusion

In this article, we have examined a few economic phenomena that stand out in particular when it comes to the use of the Internet as a tool for business activities. It is difficult to summarize an entire article that attempts to change perspectives on a single phenomenon.

The evolution of these economic exchanges is found in other areas of activity (increasing returns, reputation, loyalty, network effects, etc.). But it includes phenomena that take on a new dimension here.

For this reason, we will content ourselves with repeating that although the existing literature offers important lessons, there are many theoretical studies to be done on this subject.

These studies should focus on the role of intermediaries and field certification companies in managing information flows.

At the same time, this article primarily focuses on lessons to be learned from current studies in economics.

The development of the Internet depends on the lessons of economic literature such as community sites or free software. It is also clear that it gives rise to new phenomena and forms of organization. So, there's also a whole new area of ​​research under construction.

Dr.Yaşam Ayavefe

What should we do to contribute to the development of free software under a set of favorable conditions? We can piece together the factors that contribute to minimizing the marginal cost of effort required. These conditions become important if there is an online help system among users.

The system works not only because there are individual benefits (learning and reputation), but also because it practically costs nothing.

There is at least one user in the system whose effort to find the solution requested by another user is minimal. (Very likely that the solution is located somewhere in the system)

The cost of delivering this solution is almost zero. The Internet effect (in the sense of minimizing the marginal cost of storing and transmitting information) is crucial here.

In the context that prevailed until recently, the people who benefited from the use of free software were mostly people involved in its development.

Participation in the effort to develop the software base has benefited everyone from its use. It is assumed that the expected gains in learning and reputation constitute a sufficiently high advantage to offset the minimum cost of participation.

The internal dynamics of the market show that this condition can be generally accepted as fulfilled without opportunistic behaviors that endanger the viability of the system.

On the basis of a very simplified coalition model, we will show that the equilibrium of such a configuration corresponds to internal and external conditions that can be achieved quite easily.

We will also examine the effects of size. For example, we will show that a simple hypothesis of rigid concavity in public good production has a limiting effect on size, justifying the need to organize the free software community around projects that only tend to invest.

But the real question that interests us here is the context in which an increasing number of simple users benefit from the development efforts of the free software community without any compensation, especially financially.

This expansion of the population concerned is the result of three complementary factors:

• First, free software products have reached a certain level of maturity. Products are now very efficient and at a very high level of reliability due to the unmatched testing capacity represented by the market model compared to any corporate structure.

• Second, this expansion is driven by the extraordinary dissemination tools represented by the Internet, which add this capability to the interconnectivity capabilities of the developer community.

• Finally, more detailed designs are organized with user interfaces, user manuals and utilities.

The establishment of commercial businesses dedicated to the distribution of free software has a purpose. It constitutes a decisive factor for a category of users who are not very technical and not very experienced in browsing.

This third type of player in the free software world bases its profitability on the sale of related services.

This finds a way to reconcile business logic and non-allocation principles. Helpline, updates, "debugging", engineering of computer systems etc.

To these three explanatory factors it would be appropriate to add a fourth argument, which derives from the logic of the conflict between two radically opposed models of production.

Many free software is involved in the fight against private ownership of the code and the nature of the software industry. The adoption of free software by a growing number of users is a relevant indicator of market share.

From the growing number of agents, the marketing and use of free software, it is not difficult to see their evolution.

First of all, the broadening of the target audience facing free software today achieves clear recognition. Therefore, it constitutes a success factor. Just seeing the proliferation of opportunistic behaviors would be limiting.

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So, at every programmer's level, the achievements and recognition of free software undoubtedly reinforce the reputational effects that developers have. It also creates dissatisfaction with the lack of reward for efforts made.

It would risk dragging the market system into a dynamic of resignations and getting out of balance. It is the success of free software that will cause its downfall at this point.

Even as the number of adopters and beneficiaries of free software increases, it is difficult to maintain the balance. Therefore, it requires the establishment of new mechanisms that can compensate for the effects of inhibition at the source of the defects.

This incentive compensation can take the form of a monetary incentive through remuneration. Two alternative and complementary methods are essential.

What is currently most influential is hiring in companies that are adapting to the free software model to varying degrees.

These hirings often result in the allocation of the individual's working time, on the one hand, among the tasks delegated to the specific goals of the company, and on the other hand, an implication in the joint activities of the market.

The second type of compensation belongs to the public sector. It should be considered as one of the ways to integrate support for free software into technology policy goals.

This could be a compensation policy that benefits approved developers who spend some of their time on public research projects.

Dr.Yaşam Ayavefe

The development of free software relies heavily on the volunteer work and voluntary participation of participants in a collaborative organizational mode based on the organizational conveniences of the Internet.

Today's flagship product is the Linux operating system inspired by Unix and portable to microcomputer architectures.

But many other products are also available from specialist companies and often even freely downloaded from the Internet: website servers, office, scientific and image processing tools, etc.

What we want to show in this article is that what characterizes the free software model is primarily the freedom to modify and improve existing versions.

Therefore, the free software economy is first and foremost a model of innovation, know-how and reintegration of knowledge. It's not a free product offer type of marketing strategy.

The fact that the user is allowed access to the source code provides the very important effects of learning through use. That is, it makes it possible to make the best use of a very large distributed intelligence.

Under the terms of the Free Software Foundation, anyone can use and modify the code as long as they forward the change to the organization for verification and evaluation.

Here we find the good features of knowledge distribution and open information systems. Only the rapid and wide circulation of information makes it possible to exploit the unique potential of a large number of competent individuals.

From a concrete point of view, the rapid distribution of information facilitates coordination between agents. It reduces the risk of recurrence between research projects. It makes it possible to learn and concentrate on the best inventions.

It also constitutes a guarantee of quality. Because after knowledge is produced, it is tested by countless agents and therefore verified.

Finally, it spreads knowledge among a diverse population of researchers and entrepreneurs, increasing the likelihood of subsequent discoveries and inventions. It also reduces the risk of owning this information.

These good features of open knowledge are reinforced in the case of free software:

First, software is a complex scientific or technological object. It is therefore characterized by almost unlimited learning processes.

A system of thousands of developers working on the same software for a long time will remain for a long time, almost indefinitely.

This would not be the case with a system of thousands of engineers working to develop a simple object.

Second, software is expressed in the form of a set of coded instructions that circulates perfectly over the electronic network.

Thus, the circulation of the improvements made is fast, flawless and the marginal cost is close to zero.

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This increases the overall efficiency of the batch research process. This also increases the incentive for agents to post information.

The results are clearly demonstrated in experimental studies of new systems. If so many agents agree to cooperate, it is mainly because the time spent sending information does not exceed five minutes.

Third, software belongs to a certain class of technology that has the ability to reduce or even cancel the distance between producers and consumers.

The millions of users who bring up the problems are partly the developers who will suggest the solutions. Therefore, the relationship between identifying problems and formulating solutions is important.

There is an interesting result in this regard. People help each other because the solution one is looking for is ready to use.

In other words, there is the system, which will therefore not have to spend a great deal of effort to find and send. It's called software.

These different aspects have a clear and indisputable translation in terms of product performance. The rate of innovation, quality and reliability are far superior to those found in the proprietary software world.

If the empirical evidence on this point remains patchy, many companies and administrations turn to the free software world. Expected performance is a good indicator of potential.

For these reasons, the Linux system should not be analyzed simply as a privileged expression of individuals' ethics and beliefs, or even a sense of community. First of all, it should be seen as a mechanism that produces economic efficiency.

Dr.Yaşam Ayavefe

Manufacturers must adapt to the new organization of final markets, namely, electronic commerce, which is considered as online selling, as we have seen, but also intermediation, which is defined as a new form of harmony of supply and demand.

This adaptation is mainly done at two levels:

• Internal organization and

• Mode of interaction between companies.

In terms of internal organization, the distinction between a front office in contact with intermediaries and a back office where the products and services sold are actually produced is becoming increasingly clear. (If the company manages to integrate the brokerage function vertically with customers)

Thus, the production process is divided between:

• A product and service identification phase, a phase where the agent has the advantage of knowing customers about all aspects of their consumption (horizontalization);

• Both should benefit from strong economies of scale.

• It is also a true production phase that must accept reduced lead times to serve differentiated demand.

On the one hand, we can talk about vacancies to characterize these new firms that subcontract and reposition their actual production. (in any case, production stages that do not offer a clear differentiation perspective)

On the other hand, intermediaries for the management of their customers, besides taking risks, are the main function of transforming standardized production into products adapted to each type of customer, which remains for such a firm.

In terms of interactions between companies, it needs to control the quality and delivery dates of subcontractors and suppliers. Each company will try to closely control the upstream of their production processes.

Marketplaces will therefore have fewer marketplaces in their trade image, more production coordination centres, and will be implemented gradually from below.

Thus, firms appear as primary nodes, routing centers between two horizontal clusters:

• On the one hand, the production of more or less standardized elements (to reduce costs with the effect of scale)

• Demand management, on the other hand, is also a horizontal activity given the economies of scope of intermediation.

The quality of their services (i.e. the key factor that will differentiate them) will lie in the way business and production IT systems, which today are largely independent, can adapt and work together.

A diagram of the evolution of the industrial fabric following the flattening of end markets is presented. Here, of course, we have only represented information flows used for the coordination of processes.

Physical flows such as order taking, sales, and logistics also include sales pitches, determinants, traditional distribution channels, etc. will include.

Network companies mainly perform the function of harmony between a complex demand. It changes rapidly.

It becomes stable by functioning in communities with production that are frequently relocated, including large workshops, due to the importance of variable but fixed costs.

It provides standardized intermediates. There are products that need to be customized for each customer segment.

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Under these circumstances, competition between companies will mainly depend on the following differentiating factors:

- Where the economies of scale achieved in control itself outweigh the interests of direct connectivity. Whether this control is done directly or passes through Marketplaces depends on the quality of the control for upstream production.

- There is differentiation quality of products and services based on elements provided by intermediaries.

- Companies need to integrate vertically against intermediaries as long as they can horizontally integrate with neighboring products that form a relevant whole for a given community.

- The gap between demand and primary production should be managed at appropriate times.

- The entrepreneurial qualities of risk taking are important for financing innovation, identifying new products, and also managing the resources necessary for that innovation. In particular, the management of a workforce (knowledge workers) must be independent and idiosyncratic.

TRANSITION TO THE ECONOMY ON THE NETWORK

The new economy is not limited to technical adaptations of old economic models to networking constraints.

The example of e-commerce highlights that the Internet changes value by creating a new element, intermediation, as it enables relationships between Internet users. {production - advertising - distribution - referencing}

More generally, traditional coordination, markets, and hierarchies are being replaced by the development of networks.

The Internet can strengthen these models, and this is the argument provided to justify the financing of its development.

In reality, the Internet is shifting these models towards a new kind of coordination. It must be the level between the anonymous freedom of the market and the subordination of hierarchies.

Mastery of technological tools and skills is the third essential resource in the formation of economic models at work on the Internet. Observers and site supporters have been greatly devalued in their marketing footprint analysis.

This importance of technical ingenuity concerns both production technology, which is the heart of industrial business, and information and communication technology, which makes it possible to manage databases and online activities. It expresses itself in different ways.

Mastery of technical skills primarily strengthens the interdependent relationships that exist between partners in an industry.

From the equipment stage, suppliers or customers may impose application and equipment selection. In the building, automotive or mass distribution sectors, the deployment of ICTs has therefore been carried out on the initiative of major customers.

We also observe easy and dense deployment of ICTs when supply chains are integrated (in the case of the logistics and parcel transport industry), connecting many companies with rich applications.

Information technologies, the performance of small companies directly depend on the information and competencies that large companies have access to.

The factor is the intensification and consolidation of dependency relations between subcontractors and creators.

The situation is not new and has already occurred in the industrial history of telecommunications. He points out that it is thanks to the development of the telegram that the transport companies can establish a federation and improve their integration.

However, while emphasizing dependency relationships, ICTs are changing companies' position on value chains and the organization of corresponding flows of goods and services.

In the automotive industry, for example, the development of electronic marketplaces more recently has had the effect of strengthening manufacturers' relationships with some equipment suppliers into a kind of semi-integration.

However, thanks to ICT and modern forms of project organization, manufacturers' partners were also able to be more involved in the design and development of new vehicles.

Strengthening existing actors and erecting barriers to entry for new entrants creates a second characteristic effect of the importance of technical mastery.

The threat of new entrants and substitutes leads existing companies to preemptively equip themselves to avoid rapid replacement of traditional products by developing new skills or positioning themselves in new market segments.

This is the prevailing situation today, for example, in ordering by mail and in the distribution of cultural goods. But these barriers to entry are balanced by the advantage offered to new entrants by fully mastering their communication skills.

Because the third effect associated with technical mastery corresponds to the attack of technology providers. They are becoming full-fledged players in traditional industries.

RE-ORDERING VALUE CHAINS

The creation of new strategic assets linked to regional, informational and technical capabilities therefore acts as a real lever. The ability to consolidate, mobilize and develop relevant resources is difficult to achieve in the short term and at low cost.

It allows companies with cost and differentiation to create a sustainable competitive advantage. This explains the dominant role in e-commerce of key functions associated with the mobilization of these resources.

The analyzes developed above lead us to identify the three main types around which the business models of e-commerce industries today are structured.

1. Third party or professional agent as technical (brokerage, financial) or wholesaler.

2. Virtual broker, portal, Internet service provider, auctioneer, search engines and comparison tools, shopping mall

3. Collector, manager and facilitator of industry platforms and virtual communities

4. Market regulator (certificate, insurance, domain name, trusted third party).

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Scalable Positions in Value Chains

The transformation of sectors around core functions is marked by various movements.

• The first corresponds to the emergence of new players.

• The second concerns the evolution of companies' respective positions. The redefinition of external boundaries and the weight of partnerships on the internal organization is important.

• The third is due to the emergence of new positions in the value chain. There is the weight of consumer decisions and information transferred by distributors to manufacturers' decisions.

 The autonomy of these functions and these skills corresponds to an approach of adaptation in the face of demand and technical development. It also reflects proactive strategic approaches aimed at limiting competition.

As structures and markets stabilize, competition gradually shifts to dimensions not determined by this process.

Some functions can only be performed by certain operators. But others can be performed by anyone. In the telecommunications industry, those who provide certain functions often also tend to assume responsibility for open and more competitive functions.

Competition is built on the one hand from the development of integration capacity. On the other hand, it requires the activation of various skills.

For example, technical mastery, control of the network and its access, marketing management, knowledge of user needs, consumer lock-in with the use of data sources, customer data and product information.

Dr.Yaşam Ayavefe

For a particular good or service, radically different industrial organizations and business models can be introduced with the support of technologies in the same sequence.

In the case of the later developed apparel industries, new information technologies contribute to two simultaneous movements:

• On the one hand, it facilitates relocation movements by allowing complex and rapid changes with remote contractors.

• On the other hand, they weaken relevance and relevance by strengthening the effectiveness, responsiveness and capacity of local firms to mobilize fragmented skills.

In this case, communication technologies make it possible to separate certain business functions (cutting, production) or certain decision-making nodes (replenishment). It does not change the transport logistics circuits, which remain unchanged due to the materiality of the goods.

The only way to shorten the physical circuit of materials and products is to concentrate it geographically.

In the United States, textile-apparel companies therefore contribute to lowering production costs.

Distant countries with low labor costs preferred to adopt supply-centered organizational methods rather than systematically pursuing relocation.

However, this has weakened firms' responsiveness in an industry strongly marked by volatility and fluctuating demand.

In other sectors, for example, in the press or in the sectors of large network companies, the pursuit of quality of service and proximity to the customer leads to decentralization and autonomy.

This development of the autonomy of local production centers provides better local cohesion. However, unless intensive central coordination procedures are developed, it hinders overall flexibility and agility.

These developments seem contradictory. Because they reflect the coexistence of several influences and various response strategies.

In some cases, industry sectors respond to the introduction of new information and communication technologies with fragmentation strategies.

The specialization of the sites, the removal of the centers of expertise, the distribution of tasks and the location of the partners are very important. In other cases, it is transformed by the integration of different stages of value-added creation.

In relations with consumers, ICTs are also mobilized to support different forms of collaboration and localization. In the first case, the company centralizes production and commercial activity while serving geographically dispersed consumers thanks to its logistical mastery.

In a second case, supply and production remain local and the company tries more to coordinate this piecemeal supply.

To produce and market the same good, therefore, essentially two opposite movements are at work:

• The first is the development of markets on a comprehensive national and international basis. This globalization fosters economies of scale and scope. It supports the concentration of knowledge, the unification of markets and the standardization of products. (technical, informational, financial or commercial integration).

• The second movement is manifested by the emergence of local networks of industrial, technical or commercial order, which form the essential components of the federative communication and information structures in which structures or communities are organized.

At the industrial level, the network then appears as a means of pooling specialized resources in a dispersed framework.

Firms organize themselves on the basis of relatively independent subsets (profit centers, franchises) defined by geographic location or activity.

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In this case, the recognition of specific local expertise, as well as the search for optimization of resources and tools, leads to the promotion of exchanges.

Centralization or Collaboration

ICTs appear as flexible tools that companies act differently according to their strategies and activities. The alternative highlighted above finds expression in forms of competition with similar structures in several sectors.

In the first case, ICT reinforces the traditional physical distribution model based on the management of large volumes of purchases and inventories and the storage of products by the distributor. This inventory-based management is capital expensive, but gives its strength to distribution.

It provides significant margins, thanks to the economies of scale in supply as well as large amounts of bargaining opportunities. It also reduces the risks of stock shortages and delays. It enables stock management in flows by transferring financing costs to producers.

However, a second configuration may exist for the same product groups. Smaller-sized distributors or those who want to rely more on their supplier networks register orders before forwarding them to suppliers. They prefer to be content with an intermediary function, the products remain with the suppliers.

This position exposes the distributor to the risks of stock shortages over which he has no control, as the quality of stock management is that of the supplier.

This challenge arises when e-commerce sites offer a wide range of products. They must create a comprehensive, multi-criteria database of product data for each referenced manufacturer.

Dr.Yaşam Ayavefe

Two effects on the organization of markets emerge against the background of electronic distribution.

The first has to do with the type of testing that the transaction creates and how it relates to the way markets are coordinated and organized. At one extreme, we would have a situation where information is scarce, goods characteristics are clear and few in number, customer relationships are weak in information content and are rare or intermittent.

We then find ourselves in the context of a transactional market. The transaction or price is determined a priori for the characteristics of the goods and the actors with defined clear preferences and utility functions.

The market itself has little memory and moves slowly. The consumer is the result of a sum of all their buying behavior. The feedback of consumption on production takes place in slow time and according to long socio-technical chains.

At the other extreme, we would have a situation where information is rich and abundant, product descriptions are complex, and information-rich, frequent and interactive testing and transactions.

The market then became definitional. The transaction and the price at which it is carried out are frozen and confirm the description of the products, their usefulness and the preferences of the consumer.

This market is changing rapidly. Goods have a career, and their properties change over the course of exchanges, as well as consumers' preferences and utility functions.

Variations are fast. Historicity and memory play an important role in this form of market organization. Feedback on the definition of the offer from consumption apps is fast in a short loop.

The faster and cheaper this feedback, the more co-produced the transaction and the object, the supply and the demand. That is, it develops towards the coordination characteristic of service contracts.

Within this mode of coordination, services can be effectively compared, as in standardized service contracts.

On the contrary, it will be necessary to distinguish the way in which it is very difficult to compare, since they are linked by implied and informal contracts. There should be codable aspects of the interactions of actors promoting the effects of opacity in the organization of markets and partnerships.

Therefore, our field analysis of the electronic distribution of tangible goods by mass distribution players shows the possibility of a transition from the coordinating feature of a transactional and anonymous market to a defined and personalized market.

Now, taking a broader view and relying on the few studies presented in this issue, we can attempt to sketch an ideal type of market coordination specific to electronic distribution in a universe structured by dense information networks.

Therefore, it can be summarized in four important points.

— It is the transition from commercial rationality based on economies of scale to commercial rationality based on economies of scope. The problem of selling products to as many customers as possible has been replaced by the problem of selling all the services he needs to the same customer.

— There is a highly diversified structure of sectors and partnership forms, which makes it possible to increase the cost of leaving. It is an inseparable packaging of combined products and services (Separation destroys the investments made to establish the necessary harmony of supply and demand). These economies of scope largely correspond to the strategies of aggregated portals.

— The opposite of the commercial ideal where anonymous and knowledgeable actors exchange in a memoryless market. It is heavily equipped with connectivity and feedback tools, where instant coordination is essentially price-based.

— A personalized service that associates a tailored set of products and services around a particular customer. Prices may then depend on the singularity and the nature of the service as a whole. This may be affected by the overall value of the customer. This is defined beyond the commercial realm of individual transactions and includes both relational and expectation dimensions.

Each of these points, taken separately, is likely to fall within the usual industrial or commercial frameworks.

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For example, price differentiation can be observed in an industrial context that is both flexible and oriented towards volume and production. This is the case of yield management. But it does not necessarily see the obvious effects of customer personalization or intensification.

Or, the diversification of services for the general public can be observed outside of the Internet, through the strategy of large retailers to offer financial, insurance or travel services.

It is therefore the unification of these disparate elements into a coherent whole that raises the question of a new form of coordination.

To arrive at the hypothesis of a radically innovative model of economic profitability of the Internet involved in the articulation of the commercial and non-commercial Web, there is the "3Cs rule" in the media.

Put more strictly in economic terms, it is necessary to combine the four terms of the ideal type formed above.

In such an ideal typical market, professional competition is aimed at capturing a well-known customer for all of his needs, not buying a generally known customer.

Therefore, it is important to capture a target audience, maintain an individual and personalized relationship with each member, anticipate meeting future needs.

Building loyalty through all free and paid services offered electronically and according to a system is also an important issue.

Dr.Yaşam Ayavefe

Some authors have used this theory to describe the impact of new information and communication technologies (NTIC) on the organization. However, they produced quite contradictory results.

On the one hand, some make NICTs less costly to operate. It improves the information transparency of markets by allowing more complex descriptions of products to circulate. It advocates the idea that it supports the effects of electronic mediation technology.

On the contrary, others have decided that organizations are more capable than markets at implementing these technologies.

However, care should be taken that such an analysis essentially defines inter-firm relationships, i.e. what happens up the supply chain in the case of distribution.

The purpose of this article is to focus on the links between distribution and consumption. We do not keep repeating this.

Instead, we will start by observing the adjustments and misalignments between distribution and consumption in stores and on the Internet. We will show by what mechanisms these products have upstream repercussions at the level of supply and the construction of a product offer.

Like the logistics questions mentioned earlier, procurement questions are critical to e-commerce. To solve these, the websites of large distributors can rely on centralized purchasing bodies, which is a significant advantage.

Thanks to their power from the massification of direct flows, purchasing centers ensure that referenced products are available at a price that independents cannot reach.

This seems almost unavoidable in the case of online food trading, where sales are too few to obtain favorable prices directly from suppliers.

We've seen even local businesses try to take advantage of this indirectly by partnering with a supermarket where they prepare their orders.

However, the consumption methods on the Internet and the actual or assumed expectations of Internet users still allow these regulations to be tested according to three different methods.

The first is based on the expectation of an unlimited supply specific to the Internet. Staging an offer on an e-commerce site is indeed less restrictive than in a store: It's much easier to add hundreds of html pages to a site than linear pages in a supermarket.

The strategy and rhetoric of certain sites, such as Amazon, encourages the possibility of creating a more diverse offering on their website than in any physical store.

For this reason, there are some elements that brands that adopt this approach in food trade should do. For products not covered by the central purchasing office, they must establish independent supply chains or negotiate with central purchasing bodies to meet these specific demands.

On the one hand, most major sites have expanded their product offerings. On the other hand, they underlined that the Internet is mostly used for a large supply of standardized products, such as heavy goods that are ordered electronically and delivered in large quantities.

The second has to do with the creation of events, capturing the audience through an electronic re-enchantment of distribution. Creating a truly permanent commercial animation appears to be a necessary condition for electronic consumers to visit sites.

The proliferation of responsive and event-based offers is facilitated by the development of dynamic page editors that lower the setup costs of these marketing events.

Creating an event, putting the trendy product or the product of the day on the site, often requires a greater response than that of the central purchasing department.

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This is an even more important phenomenon in the case of mail. Order sales where timeframes are limited by seasonality of catalogs.

The third concerns the effective possibility of immediate online ordering and purchasing. The corollary to this is the need for real-time, online visibility of product availability.

This requirement turns the goals of minimizing supply shortages in stores into an electronic context.

There is a desire to make stocks, inventories and order cycles consistent, invoicing and returns. Therefore, it manifests itself with the need for information transparency and IT integration in the back office throughout the entire chain supply.

Although in principle this information transparency does not exclude the deployment of market logic, it thus far presents a trend towards bilateral integration and strengthening of strong cooperative relations.

Due to the required investments, customer-supplier relationships are shifting towards permanent cooperation rather than an easily reviewed market relationship.

This also creates an entry barrier for newcomers to the Internet. It is difficult to obtain such terms from suppliers as they do not have commercial credibility.

As such, they face the restrictive practices of one-time contracts and back margins from their suppliers.

Dr.Yaşam Ayavefe

This article aims to make a double contribution to this subject. The first is the evolution of large-scale distribution players' practices and the reality of their commitment to the development of commerce on the Internet.

Essentially, e-commerce to individuals has become another form of the distribution process. Indeed, it has been a way of adjusting supply to demand, mediated by the Internet.

Therefore, if we want to understand the features of e-commerce for individuals, we have things to do. It is necessary to analyze what it requires to be implemented by the most powerful actors in trade, the actors of mass distribution.

• Should this be seen as a radically new way of regulating supply and demand?
• Should we define the application of a new economic rationality embedded in exchange practices embedded in specific social and material instruments?
• Or should we be content with pointing out the inevitable adjustments made within the framework of a new environment according to a dynamic environment?
• Should a large online distributor site be briefly considered another store, a very special store, or something other than a store?

The purpose of this study is to propose some answers. Essentially, our empirical approach must be able to contribute to the development of a model.

Initially, the socio-economic field was adopted, emphasizing the importance of considering how concrete markets are embedded in networks of actors and exchanges linking supply and demand.

We will work on the mediations involved in the articulation between supply and demand. Therefore, it proceeds from our observations and in the form of stylized facts.

We tried to recreate how in-store distribution and electronic distribution achieve market adjustments in practice.

In evolutions, choices, and observed twists, a distribution must suddenly appear on the Internet as well as large surface or postal applications.

The problem of being able to reconstruct, describe and classify dynamics and tensions is important.

Finally, once these apparent tensions have been identified, it raises the issue of coexistence between different modes.

We tried to bring them together to form a form of consistency for electronic distribution, which conflicted with previous market coordination.

Therefore, in the ups and downs of the development of electronic commerce in distribution, it characterizes mass distribution. We will try to show how a completely contradictory supply and demand adjustment pattern can be defined.

Second, it should have visible and relatively well-defined features in the store for a consumer whose preferences are in principle accessible to the consumer.

It was characterized by the presentation of a comprehensive, competitive and comparable product offering. Global behaviors and segmentation need to be statistically reconstructed.

The adjustment between the two was made within the framework of an intermittent, indirect, impersonal and statistical customer relationship based on the concept of the average consumer.

There are tensions between distributors that we can observe concretely in the context of the implementation of e-commerce. Some outweigh the procuring procedures and indicate that another repertoire is emerging.

Economies of diversity develop within the framework of competition, individual, personal and ongoing customer relationships, complementing economies of scale.

It will focus on people rather than goods in the context of personalized services, which are heavily equipped with communication tools and where prices are not affordable.

In this plastic model, which is based on capturing an economically and sociologically variable audience, market coordination changes in nature.

It repeats the consumer preferences and the attributes of the product in every transaction. Coordination is permanently threatened by this situation, which is included in the structure of both external and electronic adjustments.

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SUPERMARKET MODEL

The generic or stylized retail model is based on an adjustment between supply and demand based on industrial rationality and economies of scale.

The emergence of department stores at the end of the 19th century became part of the distribution process, the logic of volume and increasing flow rates to reduce costs and prices.

There have been innovations, from the emergence of large-scale supermarkets and hypermarkets in urban suburbs to hard-hitting discount stores. It will just maintain the same low-price logic and catch up with faster inventory turnover.

This logic of volume and flow connects the development of mass distribution and mass production. This double development was already fully supported by the development of new technologies from the end of the 19th century.

It should be noted that it happened in the context of the emergence of organizational forms such as centralized and bureaucratic multi-divisional companies.

Dr.Yaşam Ayavefe

Some elements of the industrial economy

The purpose of this article is to present some of the industrial economics courses for the Internet. We mainly deal with business activities that use the Net as a tool. Therefore, the presentation focuses on e-commerce.

We will also examine only purely electronic activities involving information goods markets and online mediation.

We will cover some of the features of these activities, the relevant areas of economic theory, the insights they provide, and aspects of research that will be developed to better understand the industry.

We have divided this topic into three parts:

• The first chapter focuses on the problems posed by the commercial exploitation of information goods due to the nature of the product.

• The second part deals with network effects and more specifically the significantly growing online brokerage sector.

• In the last section, the role of advertising is briefly discussed.

Agents create value by bringing together various types of stakeholders: sellers, buyers, advertisers, potential customers. Its activities are characterized by “indirect” network effects that create problems of sharing the value produced.

Here we will not deal with the problem of the transition to the online sale of non-electronic goods.

The use of the Internet as a new distribution channel may be part of a logic to conquer new markets or a defensive logic to protect gains made by traditional distributors.

It requires careful negotiation of the switch to the network to protect traditional distribution channels (channel conflicts) as well as avoid threatening offline sales.

These aspects are discussed, some related to the abundant literature on the adoption of new technologies and some related to the literature on vertical chains.

However, it should be noted that the difference between brokerage and online selling is sometimes difficult. Because brokerage includes various aspects, including the management of information flows and distribution of products. Some sites only focus on information flows.

ELECTRONIC INFORMATION ASSETS

Most of the goods and services exchanged on the Internet come down to information or processing of information provided by sites to their customers. In practice, the concept of information goods is rather vague. Because it usually covers the information sold (news, advice, music, text, stock prices, addresses, etc.) and the physical support of this information.

Our aim here is to focus on the informational nature of the product. For the avoidance of any ambiguity, here we mean any good or service offered and consumed electronically on the internet by information goods.

When we talk about the information goods trade, two facts immediately come to mind.

• The first is the emergence of portals (AOL, Yahoo, Wanadoo, MSN, etc.), gateways to information dispersed on the Web.

• Second, most information services are free.

Portals affect the spectrum of services, typically starting with a centralized activity providing access or a search engine.

They are sites that extend a wide spectrum, including services that seem particularly unrelated to each other.

The event also seems very busy, with a few portals pulling the majority of traffic in the United States.

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AOL, Yahoo and MSN accounted for 80% of public portals traffic in 2000. While there are certainly economies of scope in managing subscriber accounts, the reasons for this evolution are unclear.

In particular, portals coexist with special sites. Technology makes it possible to navigate between sites for free.

Thus, the technical possibilities allow both an organization dominated by portals and a service organization in a network of specialized sites. Since the phenomenon is not related to technology, it must be based on the nature of the goods exchanged.

The fact that some services are free can be seen as either a temporary phenomenon or a long-term phenomenon. The temporary availability of some goods at prices below cost is not new and refers to the concept of loss-making prices.

A firm will be willing to sell an item at a loss if it allows it to build up a customer base that will then generate profits that compensate for current losses.

 In fact, this is the argument put forward by commercial sites in general to justify common business losses.

On the other hand, free access as a long-term phenomenon is related to the nature of the activities of sites on the Internet. It is a more specific phenomenon that depends particularly on the form of network effects, and also on the nature of the activities of sites on the Internet.

These two examples of certain features of portals and free access show that trading activities in information goods have certain characteristics that can only be reduced to the type of products sold.

Informative goods such as news, stock quotes, product features, advice, software and other intangible services have a much higher cost of production than the cost of reproduction and dissemination.

Within the framework of perfect competition, the investment made in knowledge production cannot be recovered. Because the price of knowledge will fall to the marginal cost of diffusion, which is almost zero.

As a result, knowledge, with all the problems it poses in the exchange economy, becomes an excluded public good.

Dr.Yasam Ayavefe

The concentration of mass consumer outlets on the outskirts of cities was the biggest factor. A certain spatial division of labor was achieved, with trucks providing these outlets and cars allowing households to access them.

The question explored here concerns the development of e-commerce. At the very least, it should be examined whether commercial activities lead to transformations that will significantly change the urban organization.

This is clearly forward-looking practice. Because e-commerce is still a very new phenomenon to observe its impact on commercial infrastructures. But changes can happen quite quickly.

Let's not forget that the current forms of commerce and commercial urban planning in Europe were essentially located between the mid-1960s and the end of the 1980s.

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It is therefore linked to the evolution of forms of competition in the distribution of goods and services as well as lifestyles. In the context of the development of electronic commerce, it is not ignored that transformations of the same magnitude may occur.

It is necessary to guide the development trajectories of the urban organization of commercial activities, defining spatial and industrial variables. It is important to be able to predict them through analytical planes that make it possible to sketch some development scenarios.

Here we try to explain what we mean by e-commerce. We aim to describe the partial digitization of functions that characterize any business activity.

Focusing on the final trade requires breaking it down into functions. It analyzes the possibility of digitization and thus making it independent of a physical infrastructure.

It turned out that there are still strong constraints that force the maintenance of the physical infrastructure depending on the functions. Combining physical and virtual environments, commerce continues to take root in space.

The second part examines the problem of intra-urban location of final trade infrastructures. It is relevant to the discussion of the polycentric evolution of cities.

The possible questioning of the distribution of commercial activities in the city over the past three decades is analyzed.

There are four key variables that will determine the spatial patterns of business activities:

• extent of expansion of the online sales model (niche market or mass market),

• consumption externalities,

• social externalities,

• transport of goods and movement of people.

ELECTRONIZATION OF TRADE

Implicitly or explicitly, e-commerce is often assimilated into a virtual marketplace without its own physical location.

Buyers, sellers, intermediaries continue to be physically located. But the physical infrastructure that supports the exchange of goods has to disappear altogether, even when it comes to intangible goods.

Two spatial consequences follow. First, they no longer have to solve the problem of accessing commercial infrastructure.

Buyers and sellers do not have any location restrictions on virtualized commercial venues in order to perform their transactions.

Conversely, urban centrality will no longer be defined by reference to the places structured in commercial societies.

At this point where electronic marketplaces replace real marketplaces, all business places (central, peripheral, diffuse) are affected. Commerce ceases to be an important marker of urban space.

This framework is often criticized and considered a naive version of electronic commerce. However, it continues to maintain its importance as it is consistent with the generally accepted e-commerce understanding.

To get rid of this, we should question the concept of electronic commerce and propose a spatial-functional analysis of commerce and the digitalization process on this basis.

Challenges in Defining E-commerce

The concept of trading is rarely defined precisely. What exactly is e-commerce?

This definition is very sensitive. According to the information mentioned above, we understand that e-commerce is de facto reduced to online sales.

That's why statisticians suggest including a transaction that involves an online agreement between the buyer and seller to transfer ownership.

Therefore, they try to measure the share of online sales in total sales. This criterion has the property of being explicit.

According to him, purchasing a product online constitutes e-commerce, even if the payment or delivery is not made online.

However, this does not apply to a computer selected on a website but later purchased over the phone.

This understanding of e-commerce is too restrictive to analyze the possible transformations, especially in the urban organization of commercial activities.

Dr.Yaşam Ayavefe

The collaborative development mode of free software is often referred to as the marketplace model. It is based on the distribution and communication potential offered by the Internet and the pooling of resources it allows.

It relies on the principle of availability of source codes to allow any developer to make any changes or improvements that may seem beneficial to him.

But these changes are of interest on a collective level only if their authors in turn make them public. So, they can eventually be integrated into the overall structure.

There is an effective operation of a continuous innovation mode based on a gift/counter-gift logic. Opportunistic behaviors and features build the developers community.

To avoid this trap, which is a public domain software trap, enter the copyright field without wording.

But it was necessary to enter from a very different position, even as opposed to proprietary copyright. From these concerns grew the principles established by the Free Software Foundation.

These are the principles of free use and free replacement of code, subject to the transmission of its content to the organization for verification and tagging purposes.

Therefore, when it comes to Linux, the final decision on whether to integrate the changes or not rests with those driving the industry regarding the Linux project.

In fact, the need for the principles of this order arose in 1983 when the first collective GNU2 development project was created. The need to provide a legal framework that could guarantee respect for the principles of cooperative development gave rise to the GPL or GNU General.

The basic principle is that any program that combines GPL lines of code must also be available under the GPL license, since the associated code is free. Thus, authors do not give up their rights, but the sole monopoly rent that those rights would allow in a copyright regime.

Thus, the software remains the property of its creators. They authorize anyone to use them, provided that any new versions are also freely circulating. (Changes, improvements, additions, etc.)

This does not explain the possible commercialization of the programs. Therefore, it does not limit the framework of the freeware to the non-commercial domain.

Better still, some companies have based their development strategies on the principles of collaborative development and free access to source code. So, they extended the conceptual framework of free software to an area often referred to as OSS (Open-Source Software).

This expansion may be related to the development, publication and distribution of free software such as the American company “Software”. It leads to the opening of sources of certain products on behalf of traditional software companies.

Therefore, software can very well become free once it is maintained and paid for, as was done for its product, whose source code was distributed free of charge in 1998.

The goal of this strategy is to mobilize large numbers of programmers on an important product to impose Microsoft as the de facto standard.

It was also about trying to counteract it on its own ground. Its economic rationale is then to realize its gains over complementary products that can easily remain proprietary architectures.

This inclusion of commercial activities in free space is the need to devise an extension of its legal framework beyond the very strict GNU-GPL license.

From this arose a series of more hybrid licenses aimed at developing collaboration and reconciling private interests within OSS.

The models are numerous and reflect a variety of specific situations and strategies that do not fit into any one universal regime. They correspond to various positions that relate copyright logic in various proportions and formats.

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Thus, two complementary licenses have been perfected in the unlocking process:

• NPL (Netscape Public License) and MPL (Mozilla Public License), which enables new developments to be integrated into their servers without the need for coverage.

• Covering the development of new modules.

Therefore, any changes to the source code should be published. However, it reserves the right to integrate proprietary modules and refrains from restricting its use in its own product range.

Similarly, SCSL (Sun Community Source License) emerged to extend the communication protocol. In this way, the exclusivity of the certificate of conformity of any product intended for commercial use is reserved.

Others have followed similar paths. Multiple variations combine the rights to use OSS or integrate it with proprietary software and their commercial and non-commercial uses.

The overall aim is to promote the advancement of knowledge and the adoption of the standard, with a model of exclusivity on certain elements that guarantees a certain level of income. In short, it is to harmonize the model of free access to technology.

Dr.Yaşam Ayavefe

It is structured around four main topics:

- It is necessary to increase its size, which is a necessary condition to better exploit economies of scale. This necessity finds its limits today. Short-term factors such as laws, regulatory restrictions enable regulation.

On the one hand, it is made possible by central purchasing bodies. It allows small stores to take advantage of some of the economies of scale achieved as a group.

It forces sales into losses, rather than longer-term trends like pooling effects. On the other hand, big brands need to diversify for service sales.

— Offer as many products as possible for a single purpose and ensure the most regular supply possible.

It is necessary to maximize the presence indicators on the shelves. This structures the relationship between central purchasing and suppliers above the store through SEO procedures.

— It is necessary to attract as many consumers as possible with low prices and the assurance of finding everything they need.

Suppose that more than 85% of households now visit supermarkets. This approach now takes the form of increasing competition to seize new market shares.

- Provides minimal service on behalf of the founding idea of ​​“goods sells itself”. This does not exclude the development of certain services in the background, which differs significantly from country to country.

The meeting between simultaneously evolving supply and demand is appropriate. But ultimately it steers around the catalog with pretty similar topics.

It is necessary to distribute these catalogs as much as possible, to increase the variety of offers for clearly identifiable branded products. And therefore, it is likely to be purchased remotely.

The development of this distribution in volume can only be made by creating demand adjusted to this strategy of maximizing throughput and minimizing prices.

The co-production of demand corresponding to mass consumption therefore relied on innovations such as branded products and display of prices, shop side and staging of supply.

Mass selling products means promoting them to as many people as possible, while also establishing a consumer preference for that product.

In this type of setting, the visibility of the offer with products that are well characterized by their brand and overall price is important.

It enables a consumer figure with a fixed set of preferences. The opposite is also true. This dichotomy is central to the simultaneous development of two-face marketing.

On the information side, statistical analyzes are applied that lead to segmentation of consumer behavior and individual preferences.

Manipulatively, based on the mass media, it tries to build the desire for the product by focusing on those relevant characteristics that make up the brand and the prices. (Therefore, to balance the consumer's individual preference)

This model of mass distribution and regulation of consumption must have an anthropological or sociological side. Central tension is the adaptation of preference to the product and vice versa.

However, this tension should be regarded as ideally objectifiable characteristics of both products and consumers. For this, the co-production of a sufficiently stable pair of product quality and consumer preference occurs dynamically.

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In this model, the relationship with the consumer has three basic features. It is an intermittent, distant and indirect relationship, and ultimately largely impersonal.

There are various loyalty efforts made by distributors (loyalty cards, promotional campaigns in the press, etc.).

The fact that department managers are in only occasional contact with the customer has a negative impact.

Thus, consumer behavior is only reflected collectively through various indicators based on turnover, all generated by department, product, square meters or hours of staff worked.

The department manager evaluates the behavior and preferences of consumers. He speaks to professionals higher up the supply chain on their behalf.

That's why customization is also very limited. Because mass distribution caters to the general or specific needs of the average consumer. Here, too, several nuances should be included. For example, the development of loyalty cards, etc.

As long as per-household tracks and histories are created, mail order distance is less and personalization is more.

But the range remains one that mailers try to fill with more targeted mailings, due to the seasonality of catalogs.

This is the shortest way we can define the classic retail model.

Dr.Yaşam Ayavefe

Ten years after challenging the traditional externality approach by linking them to the definition of property rights, he explored alternative conditions for exercising these rights based on the transaction costs entailed by these rights.

Negotiation costs are incurred by third parties as a result of the activities of economic agents. It is lower than the administrative costs of an agency aiming to evaluate it. A rule of ownership, the allocation of transferable usage rights, should be preferred.

Otherwise, a liability rule should be applied that provides compensation for loss of welfare caused by a third party.

Digital technologies have two types of impact on these costs:

• On the one hand, the costs of researching, negotiating and establishing contracts regarding the exchange of usage rights on intangible resources are reduced. Because it is possible to carry out these transactions online.

• On the other hand, the costs of enforcing property rights can be significantly reduced through techniques of encryption and access codes.

They make it possible to very precisely specify self-executing usage rights, as it is possible to program the terms of use of any digital directory.

Cyberspace is therefore among the users and creators of digital serials on the basis of welfare transfers by notary and judicial institutions.

It is more suited to a decentralized ownership regime of information use rights rather than a system that organizes the payment of compensation.

With reference to the transactional approach to property rights and the problems of institutions' inadequacy costs are taken into account. Second, it may not be adapted to the specific needs of users and users.

The high costs of measuring and enforcing property rights over information resources are significant. Traditional systems for managing these rights place a great deal of the burden of limiting and controlling them on creators and making them enforceable.

To carry out these processes more efficiently, various bodies are emerging for the collective management of these rights in different contexts: civil societies for copyright management, patent pools, etc.

The main disadvantage of these bulk plans is that they provide savings in transaction costs at the expense of incompatibility costs, i.e. the opportunity costs associated with poor adaptation of the exchange to the characteristics of transactions.

For example, there are copyright use licenses that allocate rights in bulk without taking into account the specifics of uses by the buyer or third parties.

The notable relevance of coding techniques is that they can be subject to transfer of defined usage rights for measurement and self-execution.

Typically, the problem created by servers is a rule that allows private copying. This is because it is hijacked by subscribers, leading to significant opportunity costs.

Losses resulting from the reproduction of a work and its small-scale communication control all private uses of sound recordings. Private copying is allowed as it is lower than the cost of the devices.

With the possibility of widespread distribution of private copies, this rule destabilizes the economics of music production.

On the other hand, the distribution of copies of each of the recipients of the recordings or digital copies may be prevented.

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On the contrary, decentralized negotiation combined with the features of digital technologies has an important interest. It is to allow a good adaptation of the nature of the rights conveyed to the characteristics of each transaction.

The methods and even the principles of state intervention in the IPR management system are therefore questioned by the new technological foundation.

ICTs enable personal protection of all digitized information. It also modifies the effectiveness of alternative forms of corporate control of intellectual property rights.

 However, it would be wrong to argue that they override the traditional institutional framework.

First, it is necessary to ensure a certain transparency in the exchange and use of information, in order to allow inspection of the misuse of content by unauthorized third parties.

Indeed, no technical encryption system is completely inviolable. Control of uses is at least a system that records claims on information.

Therefore, it requires classification of intellectual property records, verification of legitimacy and absence of overlap between these claims and establishment of disclosure rules.

Organizations tasked with verifying potential usufruct violations can monitor how intangible resources are used.

For this reason, free software or virtual communities in particular share information over a very large-scale network. If necessary, bulk rules should be defined that force content owners to make them accessible or edit.

Dr.Yaşam Ayavefe

The Internet has become a universal medium that connects all economic units. Therefore, it is natural for more than one economic activity to settle there and electronic commerce to emerge.

However, the definition of this concept is unclear. Because, as measurement attempts have proven, its scope is circumstantial. There is a very restrictive meaning with a very broad meaning that includes all economic activities supported by networks. That is, it is limited to online transactions on the Internet.

Three basic observations should be made in this regard.

First, the development of economic activities on networks, including digital networks, began long before the Internet. In addition, it continues to spread in numerous media. These media will eventually converge on the Internet, but they remain different today.

Still, there is no need to go back to the telegram or the telephone, which play an important role in integrating a certain number of markets. We can note the emergence of large online transaction systems based on digital networks, especially in finance, air transport, since the 1970s.

The 1980s later saw the proliferation of different types of intercompany information integration systems, particularly in the trade, logistics and assembly industries such as the automotive or aerospace. All of these systems still exist today.

As for in-house telecomputing networks, the first one dates back to the 1960s.

E-commerce, both broadly and narrowly, does not proceed from the Internet alone. We now have some distance to analyze the role played by ICTs in the evolution of economic coordination.

One of the main consequences in this context is that technology by itself does not determine any optimal organizational model.

Certain constraints on organizational choices made by economic agents need to be removed. These choices basically depend on the way problems arise.

Depending on the activities and institutional frameworks, coordination emerges. For this reason, there are many tangible forms of electronic markets and hierarchies, as well as situations where electronic media seem to be of little use.

Second, the digitization of the economy is undeniable. When you read some growth forecasts, which were popularized by the press and even some official reports, the developments do not happen as you imagine.

It is very difficult to accurately and relevantly measure the share of activities powered by digital networks. In particular, we very often try to assess the weight of operations conducted entirely online.

However, daily observations have the same importance in all dimensions of social life as in commercial matters.

This shows that certain key components of the operation make it suitable for digitization and online production. Other components escape this virtualization.

Since the virtual is complementary and inseparable from the real, it is pointless to try to measure the economic weight of the purely virtual. It is hardly surprising that pure online weight appears to be marginal in the economy.

When this point of the method is achieved, a new step must be taken. It is necessary to modulate the digitization of the economy.

In the late 1990s, impressive growth rates were observed in many Internet-related fields. There has been improvement in both the size and activities of the network and the volume of economic transactions it supports.

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Three factors came together to explain this very fast starting rate.

First, before 1995, the Internet was only a private network, limited to non-commercial applications. Therefore, the level was very low in the beginning.

It then contributed to sustaining artificial growth, as many services were offered at prices well below cost price. Finally, a certain number of services and activities have been transferred from specialized networks to the Internet.

The only truly reliable figures for e-commerce are data from the Ministry of Commerce. These data confirm the fact of a quick start.  In the United States, online retail commerce has grown in volume since it was observed until the last quarter of 2000.

However, objectively observed growth levels and rates are much lower than predicted.

First of all, the first quarter of 2001 saw a decline in both the volume and relative weight of online commerce, whose share in retail trade fell to 0.91%.

Of course, these figures should not be seen as the beginning of the regression in the development of the internet and a move away from the digitization of the economy.

It just shows that some economic models developed during the speculative bubble are not valid, and that the pace of digitization of the economy is slow.

Because profound changes are required in many areas and it is necessary to move towards full digitalization. Because most of the consumption standard consists of tangible goods and services.

The resulting economic and technical constraints make it necessary to resort to traditional forms of organization of production and trade.

Dr.Yaşam Ayavefe

Information and communication technologies (ICT) reveal the organization of companies and industrial sectors in new terms.

They simultaneously affect the materiality of product flows, the layout and organization of production-distribution processes, the allocation and structuring of skills and occupations, and the targeting and management of customers.

Industrial organization is, in fact, structured through different modes of articulation between physical exchanges and informational relations.

That is, the production flow is between the circulation of parts and components of the product on the one hand, and expertise exchanges and supports as well as communication resources on the other.

New forms of organization and market are expressed in various ways. It is concerned both with the evolution of the internal structure of firms and with the transformation of inter-firm relations in industrial sectors and value chains.

The purpose of this article is to characterize these forms of organization of the sectors and their associated business models.

ICT AND VALUE CHAINS

The theorizing of the relationship between ICT and the organization of inter-company relations finds its source either in various studies, particularly in economics or in management and organizational sciences.

On the economics side, it is undoubtedly the contributions of transaction economists who have most explored the impact of ICT on inter-firm relations.

Strictly speaking, there is more controversy than the work of industrial economists. Research therefore particularly highlights the role of ICT in reorganizing relations between industrial partners.

Other authors have been directly concerned with the effects of ICT. In particular, the new partnership strategies opened by ICT were underlined.

It has shown how ICT development largely conforms to classical economic rules and does not necessarily represent a change in the nature of observed developments.

On the other hand, organizational managers and theorists are at the root of more specific reflections that emphasize the concept of value chain.

The resource-based and core-skill-based approach made it possible to emphasize the consistency of processes, the coordination of activities and the quality of management of company resources.

Essentially, it indicates that the subject of exchange, the production function, the list and nature of goods are relatively stable.

 It reveals the structure of skills by focusing on alliances, inter-firm partnerships, contract forms, and coordination relationships that assume the economic situation is final.

Strategic analyzes and economics of transaction costs examine the interests of forms of cooperation and contracting with respect to the organization of changes between partners.

Other studies instead take into account the relationships and exchanges between actors participating in the same activity by analyzing them in terms of control and dependence on resources.

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If reasoning managers are more interested in terms of sectors and value chain, it is not only because of the significant transformations of the production function that affect its content and organization.

In addition, it makes it possible to take into account the location of economic actors.

Some recent studies in the field of strategy have explored this question by introducing the concept of supply chain or global commodity chain.

Analysis based on the concept of value chains is at the direct intersection of reflections arising from analyzes of the industrial economy and management sectors.

They are interesting because of the obvious contradictions they involve, as they predict strong cooperation and renewed competition between manufacturers and distributors.

But the thinking of economists and managers is largely compartmentalized.

The economics of organizations is characterized, paradoxically, by a relative inattention to work on management problems, especially information processing.

Branches and Industries

Microeconomic approaches to industry have preferred technical criteria, especially based on product homogeneity criteria, to delimit sectors.

Firms that produce the good have an industry through their on-the-job production processes and links between firms. The branch concept allows it to take into account a competitive process related to the substitutability of goods.

Its industrial system is defined as a unique, tangible and stable network of interactive and identifiable components.

He uses the term industry to characterize an intermediate form of organization that promotes up-and-down relationships between the market and firms.

In particular, it distinguishes between intra-company or inter-company coordination modes, depending on whether the activities are similar or complementary.

The reasoning regarding the concept of sector nevertheless appears to be a French specificity and the term sector has no English equivalent.

Since the 1970s, many studies have been carried out on this subject in order to determine the foundation and purpose of industrial policies. They define production chains as sequential stages from a raw material to the consumption of products.

Dr.Yaşam Ayavefe

The scarcity of network resources, combined with the collective nature of some of the functions they support, demand the regulation of the Internet. Because the free play of decentralized interactions does not guarantee the efficiency market and decentralized coordination.

This does not necessarily lead to state regulation. However, any coordination at least guarantees a definition as clear and complete as possible of ownership rights over the components of the network and the information it transmits.

Basic functions are not abused for the purpose of exercising monopoly power. (access, interconnection, management of addressing systems)

In this context, it is important to note the existence of a security and transparency dilemma. On the one hand, maintaining the long-term viability of competition in network services and content requires a guarantee of transparency on the network.

The behavior of operators or service providers can be verified so that users can compare them and that the organizations responsible for monitoring competitive behavior can actually fulfill their duties.

On the other hand, legal protection of information transmitted by networks requires encryption of networks. Again, there is a need for regulation. Because all information exchanges should be accessible to everyone.

It is necessary to check that the purchases are not linked to activities harmful to the community. Examples include making deals, looting third party intellectual property, or engaging in criminal activities.

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Therefore, trusted third parties should have the authority to audit usages from the network. An audit system should be developed to ensure their efficiency and impartiality.

More generally, note that the main risk Internet users are exposed to is information overflow. The main scarce resource in the knowledge economy is the ability to sort and discriminate information.

Also, part of the strategy of commercial operators is that Internet users do not have the means to effectively compare competing offers.

It will offer tailor-made services, save consumers on search costs, but must allow service providers to differentiate their offerings and differentiate very finely.

It is also based on the same logic that brand owners can impose their use in the internet space.

A brand creates a linked information services offer.

In this case, the provision of information on each aspect of the quality of service provided by a bidder allows users to save on the costs of searching for information.

The use of trademarks on the Internet allows search engines to automatically compare offers based on the criteria of cyber consumers. Terminologies need to be developed for the definition of products and services.

Although the question of applicability of such designations arises, the use of trademarks on the Internet is necessary.

This underlines that transparency, which is a necessary condition for maintaining the viability of competition, is not automatically provided by technology.

Secondly, it is necessary to reduce the costs of searching for information to zero. Transparency can only be guaranteed by a combination of provisions to limit the scope of encryption, standardize identifiers, and prohibit them.

It is necessary to use technical tools that prevent the information from being searched and automatically sorted.

Therefore, there are really needs for the regulation of the Internet. It remains to determine the legitimate and effective institutional framework to ensure its implementation.

INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK

The Internet is subject to a unique form of regulation, determined by the coexistence of institutions with a wide variety of statuses and partially conflicting powers. The result is an unsatisfactory institutional framework.

Its characteristics are explained by the boundaries of the pre-existing institutional framework. Yet it is marked by inherent shortcomings that justify imagining new corporate forms made possible by the original technical features of the network.

Limits of The Traditional Framework

The libertarian or liberal ideology of the creators of the Internet, by itself, does not explain why its regulation is not provided by traditional mechanisms, namely States and Interstate organizations.

The difficulty for states to initially understand the interests of this new type of network partially justifies the form taken by the mechanisms that regulate the network today.

However, if new institutional forms have emerged, it is primarily because the Internet contains features that call into question the effectiveness, even legitimacy, of traditional regulations.

Dr.Yaşam Ayavefe

In our previous articles, we have tried to show that digital markets are not reduced to real markets where information circulates better. They don't have to be markets closer to perfect markets.

In these circumstances, it is not surprising that empirical analyzes of already established digital markets highlight neither more active nor less dispersed prices, neither price elasticity nor greater dynamism in pricing.

It has an inventory of available empirical studies on the functioning of digital markets.

We presented the results of the comparison between real markets and digital markets according to four dimensions:

1. The level of prices charged: Is the same product sold at a lower price on the Web?

2. Price elasticity of demand: Are consumers more sensitive to price changes on the Web?

3. Catalog costs (menu costs): These are the costs required to change prices. Do electronic merchants change their prices more often than real merchants?

4. Distribution of prices in digital markets: Is the gap between the highest and lowest price on the Web for the same good decreasing?

Concerning the level of prices charged, the results are uncertain. In 1996 and 1998, prices, similar products and services on the Web were higher than in real markets.

On the contrary, in 1999, even taking into account the costs of delivering goods, prices on the Web appear to be 9 to 16% lower than in real markets.

Regarding the elasticity of demand, the provision of very detailed and easily accessible information that digital markets allow seems to reduce the price sensitivity of consumers that much.

Regarding price dynamics and catalog costs, it has been seen that online merchants make price changes more frequently and on a smaller scale, and offer lower catalogs on the Web.

Finally, with regard to the price distribution on the Web, neither in 1998 nor in 1999 showed any difference in price distribution between the Web and real commerce.

These distributions are very high for both market types. For example, 50% for books and CDs.

Therefore, we conclude that the authenticity of digital markets is mainly due to greater activity and no reduction in various frictions that constrain real markets.

Even if information flows better, it is not primarily used to make markets more perfect in the context of the static balance between supply and demand.

INFORMATION COLLECTION BY SELLERS

The model previously described and discussed, on the one hand, provides consumers with better tools to compare products. On the other hand, it is characterized by the fact that traders have less costly means to adapt prices to demand.

Below we will try to identify a different pattern, closer to what we are currently observing on the Web.

The feature of this model is:

— Consumers do not use Web tools to compare product prices and quality. They use the internet to exchange information among themselves about the features of products (Also these exchanges are only part of the surfer's relationship with each other).

These exchanges create club and fashion influences. It may even cause permanent changes in utility functions.

— Companies use Web tools to learn about consumers and the evolution of their tastes, not to define more complex pricing.

This information is used to segment demand and differentiate their products from actual markets much more effectively.

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On the contrary, markets are not becoming more fluid. They are more and more precisely divided into sections.

The structure of the audience (i.e. the distribution of surfers across sites) serves as a guide for customer segmentation. Information collected by web companies can be used to differentiate products and services.

From now on, the term mediation will refer to this mutual learning process between supply and demand.

The reason they allow for this dynamic adjustment between an as-yet-undefined supply and an as-yet-undisclosed demand is that free markets outperform any central scheme that can only achieve static equilibria.

Dr.Yaşam Ayavefe

Research activities are organized in a network of specifically 35 federative bodies for a number of sixty joint research units as well as several major centers in the provinces.

Documentation plays a central role in this research activity. It is not just a privileged medium for the transmission of final results. It is a true study tool that contains all the illustrations and developments of the research.

Reading and reviewing a paper are an essential part of a mathematician's research work. This is why math libraries are so close to researchers, being at the center of research activity, near laboratories, or even inside laboratories.

This geographical proximity has a strong involvement of mathematicians in the management of their libraries as scientific directors or within library commissions. It is highlighted by research laboratories' great efforts to participate in the funding of their most valuable study tools.

Although they have different statuses, these libraries are often associated with Common Documentation Services by agreement.

They mostly join the joint catalog of SCD and Sudoc. Thus, they integrate themselves into the local university documentary system.

These features explain why mathematicians want to collaborate with librarians to create and revitalize the National Network of Mathematics Libraries (RNBM).

It was created in the late 1970s by a group of mathematicians and librarians to find common solutions to the financial difficulties associated with rising prices of scientific journals.

The established network received financial support (four-year plans) through the ministry and the CNRS in 1996. This network has been animated together by a librarian and a mathematician since its inception.

This duality at the helm of disciplinary libraries is the originality and power of the network. The RNBM continued to operate strongly.

It received service group (GDS) status from the CNRS of the National Institute of Mathematics in 2004 and interaction (INSMI) status since 2009.

It has a research support role by coordinating documentary policy in mathematics within the framework of INSMI's national missions.

It performs the dual task of assuring the access, quality, durability and specificity of mathematical documents and strengthening relationships between the network's libraries and librarians and mathematicians.

What tasks are networks used for?

The RNBM is part of a system established by the CNRS to run a national documentary policy in mathematics.

Developed in close collaboration with INSMI management, this policy has been made possible by collaboration between the RNBM, the Mathdoc cell, and a network of computer scientists from the Mathrice math labs.

This collaboration, which has been in place for many years, has enabled the application of tools and services in the discipline, especially for mathematicians and librarians.

The RNBM also plays a role in communicating and promoting the actions of national authorities with researchers. It allows the needs of mathematicians to be taken into account in research (eg the Istex research).

The participation of the RNBM in the various groups of BSN10 is in this direction and is important for the visibility of the mathematical documentation.

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Pooling of Documents

Documentary offering and reach remains a central concern in national documentary policy in mathematics today.

From the late 1990s, RNBM established the first consortium agreements for electronic mathematical documents for access to the MathSciNet (American Mathematical Society) and Zentralblatt Math (Springer) databases, mathematical journals on the Springerlink platform.

These agreements were renewed taking into account the changes in the IST environment in France and especially the establishment of Couperin. The RNBM is a partner in negotiations with the CNRS and other scientific and technological organizations (EPST).

The purpose of the RNBM is to provide common access to the entire mathematical community to the electronic resources of the discipline. Once the publisher accepts this, they want to extend that reach to the entire math community.

There is an agreement signed in 2012 with the European Mathematical Society. These agreements aim to maintain a documentary offering tailored to the needs of mathematicians.

Collaboration between librarians and mathematicians is important here. Because it allows researchers to take a critical view in the constructive sense of the term.

The documentary offers a useful perspective on politics, not only from an economic perspective, but also from a qualitative perspective.

Therefore, the presence of a scientist appears to be an asset in discussions with publishers during the drafting of agreements.

It works closely with the RNBM, the Mathdoc unit and the Mathrice network to provide access to these documentary resources.

Mathrice's online platform fulfills the need for mobile access to agreed resources for the network's member labs.

The RNBM manages the rights of the units according to the signed agreements and Mathrice manages the authentication aspects based on a directory of mathematicians.

The extraordinary development of electronic information concerns any document collected and processed in a documentation center. Far from being a purely technical phenomenon, dematerialization brings major changes in the way content is distributed.

Until the 1990s, subscription management was an annual process based either on a direct relationship between publisher and customer or on the publisher, agency, customer triangle.

From now on, digital information is an international market and its development reveals new players: consortia, aggregators, platform managers including open archives, etc.

The information acquisition practices and working environment of librarians and documentarians were disrupted.

What is the new deal in terms of supply, players and reach? What consequences will digitization have on the intellectual and institutional organization of archives? What impact will the new forms of access have on applications?

Designed from a committed operational perspective, this dossier is part of the dynamics of the cross-union working group on subscriptions that includes ADBS.

It aims to help information professionals cope with the new requirements of their position in the purchasing process.

It also aims to provide some elements of reflection and analysis on issues that everyone should know and, if possible, master.

Massification and Globalization

The new agreement covers, above all, the explosion in knowledge production, the globalization of the offer and the dominance of major international broadcasting groups.

The proliferation of information resources creates a galaxy served alongside traditional players. It nurtures a supply market where new professions such as aggregators and platform managers are emerging.

With the strategy of conquering the user's workstation, companies are trying to form strong, multinational groups around high value-added products.

In the field of scientific knowledge, this is an important mode. There is a new marketing approach that university libraries have been implementing for several years.

It offers simplified access to a vast collection of journals, including those not needed, at an admittedly competitive cost. But it no longer allows professionals to choose the appropriate title selection for users.

Faced with this phenomenon, major research institutions are coming together. Some are developing free repositories on an enterprise basis.

Indeed, dematerialization destabilizes the traditional scheme of financing magazines by their readers.

It proposes an upstream corporate finance model that allows research results to be disseminated for free. Direct scientific communication logic also includes an institutional dimension in the archiving dimension.

Is the deposit requirement a sign of the big comeback of public institutions?

Now two opposing logics coexist:

• Researchers and researchers based on upstream financing of activities and
• Profitability of high value-added products with information sharing among users and downstream financing by customer subscriptions.

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New Skills

In this case, the user is in a paradoxical position. He is a captive customer of very expensive and sometimes unsuitable professional information.

It also draws on currently free information resources from the research world. The acquisition policy should take into account both free resources and paid data.

On a daily basis, professionals must choose among content distribution formulas offered by publishers and aggregators while respecting the budget allocated to purchases. There, too, there is a new agreement.

The document is no longer just a carrier of information. It is also the object of a contract for access to the information it contains. And this contract itself is linked to rights granted or not granted by the author or producer.

Faced with this challenging exercise, the documentarian must develop new skills and become a dedicated buyer. Today, knowledge of content, distribution channels and marketing methods is essential.

In addition, libraries and documentary services are of great importance because of their important role in purchasing negotiations. They play a new role as technical operators with IT professionals to manage access and set up portals.

Without forgetting, it also provides the users with the necessary support in their research applications while developing its product and service range.

Another strong trend is grouping of buyers who want to take more weight against publishers considered very strong. This is how it chose to join forces to achieve better pricing conditions.

The emphasis on buying better is also done through public contracts. It can also mean pooling the skills and scope to run joint calls for tender.

The Semantic Web is also called Web 3.0. This enumeration places it within the four generations of the Web known to date.

Web 1.0 is referred to as the documentary web, where resources are published without any processing other than formatting and without any interaction other than enabling hypertext links.

In this generation of the web, there is no computer process that takes the document as its object, inspired by certain information that specifies its type, structure, terms or concepts.

If you want to implement an automated process, the only data you have is the content itself and the broadcast format specifications.

The main limitation faced by this approach is that the rendering performed cannot rely on what is known about the content. It should be a report and not a business card, it should mention certain concepts, comply with formatting standards.

In other words, Web 1.0 blindly performs its processing, not the meaning, taking into account only the encoding of the content.

Then came the idea to enrich these treatments with additional information from the meaning of these ingredients to make them more precise and efficient.

The question then is how to bring knowledge and penetrate processes. At this point, two complementary approaches emerge.

In the first case, users are considered part of the documentary process and their knowledge and skills can be trusted. The challenge is to allow them to add information to the content through their understanding and interpretation.

This will be the target of web 2.0, also known as the contributor web. Therefore, a photography site relies on descriptions written by Internet users. But we can also look at things differently.

Instead of activating the internet user, it is necessary to equip the machine. Instead, based on human interpretation, tools need to represent both available relevant information and expected interpretation of the content.

Succeeding in this dual task will be the goal of web 3.0. It designs tools that can both represent and benefit from this information and interpretation.

Finally, the environmental intelligence paradigm leads us to think of the Web not as a set of tools, but rather as components integrated into devices and objects around us.

This is web 4.0 or the symbiotic web. Environment objects communicate through web devices that they internalize within themselves.

Semantics

If we want to represent knowledge, interpret the content, what sense and understanding of meaning must we adopt?

We have two goals or constraints: on the one hand, to be able to explain the meaning of a content, and on the other hand, to make that explanation usable through computer processing.

Several approaches are possible.

• A psychological approach where the meaning of a term is its mental representation. To agree on the same thing is to have the same mental representation of it.

We often find this approach in the cognitive sciences where meaning is in the head. Understanding the brain then makes it possible to grasp what it is thinking.

• A linguistic approach in which the meaning of a term consists in its expression in other terms. This approach is found in linguistics, semiotics, particularly the semiotics of cultures that deal with the differential paradigm.

• An ontological approach in which the meaning of a term is based on the object it denotes or can designate. This representative approach refers to the constraint of having an understanding of what exists or can exist in the world to understand what a language's expressions mean.

• The syntactic form of a term or an expression that indicates or suggests that the meaning of a term is its logical form, essentially (ontologically).

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Especially if we want to have an expression that faithfully reflects the semantics, this syntactic form must be explained in the formalisms of mathematical logic. In other words, expressing the meaning of a content is tantamount to translating it into a logical formalism.

This last approach presents many challenges. But from a Semantic Web perspective, it's undeniably productive.

Explaining the meaning is to explain the logical form, and the second is syntactic, as it makes it possible to actually solve the two difficulties mentioned above, it can be used with computer processing.

Considering that meaning is nothing but a logical restatement of the logical, meaning that meaning can only be captured by rewriting it logically, the formalist approach provides web 3.0 with scientific, methodological and technical content.

Therefore, in the remainder of this issue we will find presentations of formalized languages ​​such as RDF, OWL. Because these are languages ​​that will have the heavy task of making sense and being used by computer tools.

Dr.Yaşam Ayavefe

The quantitative difference here, however, includes difference in the way information is presented, and particularly in such a way that it cannot be grasped by reading. It requires changes in the way it produces visual representations of audiences.

It suggests data visualization, new scenarios and collaboration of information analysts (statisticians, data managers), graphic designers and Web experts.

Profession Avatars

At every stage of technological transformation, there are forerunners, supporters and opponents. In the socio-style fashion that was in vogue in the 1980s, we will identify three possible profiles here.

➢ Classics. They argue that all current movement around data is an extension of their previous activities. They are occupations inherent in their practice, often following the normal developments associated with the evolution of tools.

Statisticians and computer scientists thus have more computing power, different processing paradigms, new ways of working while continuing to practice the same profession. Here denominations classical, social and professional functions remain constant.

➢ Mutants. For other professions, the changes are not just in continuity with current situations. They contribute to changing the framework of activity and significantly changing the ways of doing things and the goals of action.

In terms of technical action, indexing a document or tagging an XML page does not represent fundamental differences.

However, later use of these actions can change completely. It requires a radically different stance on the part of the indexer or cataloger.

For example, reflecting on the use of open data requires developing an all-encompassing view, thinking about connections, relationships.

Contrary to the traditional position here, a unitary treatment and separation of knowledge is required. Rather than a radical mutation, we are dealing here with displacements, with perspective shifts.

Drawing an ontology is not fundamentally innovative compared to building a data model. But it is part of another knowledge vision, products and uses.

Here, the trial and error of representations, the relative blurring of functions, the anxiety of staying connected to modernity often lead to the change or development of job names (data manager).

First of all, professions whose core activity is not documentary gestures adopt and adapt to knowledge management tools and techniques. For example, part of the workforce is constantly browsing the Web.

➢ Innovators. As with any technical change, promises of innovation need to be filtered through criticism, and it is necessary to distinguish between the promotional speeches of the publishers of the tools and promoters, in particular, and the marketing intentions they hide.

However, new functions emerge and require new skills. This can be a matter of recycling and the development of already known profiles, or the development of completely new modes of operation. (this is the case for mutants)

First of all, it is a matter of exploring new fields of activity outside of traditional sectors.

Changing Perspectives

Ultimately, all information professionals, archivists, librarians, documentarians in their most traditional profiles, find themselves faced with these challenges and changes in perspective.

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It can be said that it has been neither more nor less since the first computerization of catalogs and documentary collections.

A history of innovation in this business sector would obviously go beyond the scope of this dossier. But the list of breakthroughs will be innumerable. Therefore, we can show that this history consists of permanent adaptations to new tools.

There is also a trend towards new techniques in which the logic of the data will simply be a new avatar.

But at the same time, these developments lead to difference. It leads to the application of global skills for processing data and information in economic and social contexts encompassed by paradigms.

Dr.Yaşam Ayavefe

In a world characterized by globalization, the meeting of visitors and residents and the establishment of new socio-economic activities are not sent off from disturbances as it brings new set of values ​​that inevitably clash with the established ones.

As a result, cultural tourism becomes sustainable when it can extend its sovereignty beyond the economic sphere and embrace human development, by incorporating concepts such as cultural values, cultural diversity, cultural significance of a place, welfare, democracy and human rights.

The way these issues are addressed in policy and management practice varies widely and makes the difference between successful and ineffective strategies in the long run.

Conversely, sensitive issues such as the current socio-political system, the economic situation and the quality of the natural environment, as well as property and access to heritage, may threaten the establishment of these concepts and thereby endanger the sustainability of development.

This is the main reason why a reliable monitoring network of local, national and international observatories has become an ideal tool for detecting both positive and harmful effects on the cultural and socio-economic environment of a World Heritage site.

Located in Mykonos, Mileo Luxury Hotel attaches great importance to cultural tourism. Cultural sustainability is an important issue for the hotel.

Common areas are available for customers from all cultures. It has an understanding that everyone can feel comfortable regardless of religion, language or race.

If you want to experience not only sea, sand and sun but also a cultural feeling during your holidays, you should definitely choose Mileo Luxury Hotel.

Cultural Sustainability

Cultural tourism plays a very important role in facilitating intercultural dialogue. Thus, it enriches cultural diversity.

Encourages communities to come together collectively for a common purpose; therefore, it represents a tremendous opportunity to move forward on the path of creative development of cultural heritage as well as to move forward on the path of responsible and forward-looking development.

At the same time, the relationship between tourism and cultural complex and multi-layered cultural tourism contains many known risks.

The disappearance of cultural identities, the disappearance of values and the increase in social inequalities are a few of them.

In the case of World Heritage sites, the cohesion and cooperation of heterogeneous communities is not just a product of intimacy and interpersonal contact that fosters understanding and respect for differences.

Rather, it is the result of dense intercultural networks that foster a sense of global community.

The way these links are formally managed consistently influences the local cultural, environmental and socio-economic impacts of tourism.

From the above perspective, this article aims to detail the conceptual framework that gives meaning to the sustainability of cultural tourism.

In particular, it is necessary to bring everyone together in line with the common goal, which is accepted as the protection and development of cultural heritage with an approach of cultural competence and creativity. In doing so, it explores strategies that can be used to improve quality of life.

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It aims to explore whether management plans are generally equipped to address cultural sustainable development issues in different scenarios.

It is also an indicator of the level of cultural and identity awareness and is often associated with a sense of community and interpersonal networks.

Cultural sites, especially World Heritage sites, are not just magnificent paintings to admire. They are mixed events that those who encounter them experience with material, intellectual, emotional and spiritual connotations.

Cultural and natural heritage should be protected, cultures and civilizations should be better known, daily living conditions should be improved and poverty should be reduced.

However, there are winning strategies for sustainable development, whether related to the conservation or management of cultural and natural heritage.

This can only be achieved by involving local communities in the effort, conveying a clear sense of purpose, and fostering an environment that supports social relationships in terms of reciprocity and integration.

Because of their extraordinary universal value, managing World Heritage sites means managing part of humanity's common heritage. It requires recognition that cultural diversity requires acceptance of the legitimacy of society.

The first principle has been extended to enable the concept of sustainability through its universal principles of cultural diversity, linking sustainable development and well-being to the cultural dimension.

The focus of the World Heritage management plan on the principles illustrated above can be translated into operational measures.

Finding a methodological approach consistent with the theoretical frameworks created and creating a supportive system for both.

For the same reason, there is the process of designing tourism policies and attitudes. The way it is integrated into the World Heritage management plan is important to the cultural environment and its potential to promote cultural sustainable development.

One of the designers of Mieo Luxury Hotel, Dr. Yaşam Ayavefe cares about the protection of cultural heritage. The hotel was designed by preserving the historical structure of Mykonos.

By choosing Mileo Luxury Hotel, you can accompany both comfort and a cultural holiday. You should take this detail into account when making your holiday plans.

Dr.Yaşam Ayavefe

Competition between tourist destinations is very intense at the global level. New destinations that are constantly emerging in many parts of the world, the continuous development of new technologies and the current bad economic conditions are a very influential factor.

This article aims to explore the potential of urban tourism in Thessaloniki. It is necessary to draft a strategic marketing plan to promote the city as a tourist destination all year round. This study is based on a research framework.

The research includes data from nearly 400 surveys conducted in places such as hotels, airports and ports filled by representative groups of tourists and tourism professionals, and secondly, secondary and literature review.

The results offer a complete proposal for a strategic marketing plan for tourism in Thessaloniki, consisting of areas that need to be strengthened and promoted, in particular cultural routes, gastronomic tourism and health tourism.

It is aimed to develop urban tourism throughout the year by promoting the distinctive elements of Thessaloniki and respecting the cultural characteristics and history of the city.

The tourist market of the Southeastern Mediterranean geographical region, to which Greece belongs, consumer preferences are constantly evolving.

These changes in the international tourism landscape combined with the economic crisis and the new economic situation in Greece have led to the necessity of new proposals in the tourism sector.

Urban tourism aims to gain a more competitive position within the urban system and to create competitive advantages over other similar cities. Its development, especially city branding and city marketing, is of particular importance.

In the context of these trends and developments, an attempt has been made in recent years to develop urban tourism in Greece by developing relevant marketing plans for cities.

These recommendations include strategic planning that will show the comparative advantage of each region or city separately.

Greece is famous for tourism. What makes Greece famous is its islands. Greece has dozens of islands. But the most eye-catching is Mykonos.

Located on the Greek island of Mykonos, Mileo Luxury Hotel has a strategic importance. Due to its location, it attracts the attention of tourists and holidaymakers.

Mileo Luxury Hotel is in a location intertwined with nature. It is located at the junction of green and blue. If we are talking about the importance of location in tourism, the location of Mileo Luxury Hotel is ideal for a holiday.

It is located at a wonderful spot where you will feel the oxygen at the highest level. If you are planning a holiday in Greece and you want it to be the most interesting tourism center, Mileo Luxury Hotel is for you!

Strategic Marketing

Preparing strategic marketing plans for tourism is effective if a certain process is followed, which consists of five logical steps of five consecutive steps.

• The first step aims to develop a corporate mission and formulate corporate goals.

• The second step includes the SWOT analysis.

• The third step is about setting marketing objectives and developing alternative marketing strategies.

• The fourth step includes the evaluation of all alternatives and the final selection of a strategy.

• The fifth and final step is the creation of the regular marketing mix and the implementation of the chosen strategy.

The results of the strategic analysis provide a valuable basis for setting goals and selecting strategy for the next phase of the project.

Strategies aim to implement marketing objectives while tactics aim to implement all strategies. Tourism marketing strategies are divided into high or general ones and special ones.

Formulated from the most famous strategies that can be used by any organization are three highly alternative strategies:

(1) Cost strategy,

(2) The differentiation of product features from other competing products, and

(3) Focus on niche markets.

The growth and market share model, called the model, offers an interesting technique for developing objective, alternative strategies. There are four different product types according to the BCG model.

Regarding the intensity of competition and the forces driving it, he argues that each company is particularly concerned with the intensity of competition in the industry in which it operates.

The degree of competition intensity depends on the five main forces that also determine the profitability of the sector.

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These forces are:

(1) new players entering the market

(2) consumer power,

(3) the threat of substitute products,

(4) the current intensity of competition, and

(5) is the power of suppliers.

Mileo, hosts a large number of tourists. It carries the country to the top of the tourism rankings.

If you are going to Greece, the country where tourism is most active, you should choose Mileo Hotel.

Dr.Yaşam Ayavefe

Hayatımıza 2019 yılında giren covid-19 salgını günümüze farklı varyantlarla girmiş ve bir çok sektörde acımasızlığını göstermişti. Turizm,eğitim,sağlık ve bir çok alanda olumsuz etkilerini bırakmış ve süreç inişli çıkışlı devam etmektdir. Tam geçiyor derken ortaya çıkan yeni varyantlar 2022 yılın için de tehdit oluşturmaya devam etmektedir.

Fakat yeni varyantların ortaya çıkması vakalardaki sayıların artışı daha önceden alınan tedbirleri tekrardan uygulatmamıştır .Bu da ekonomik anlamda kısmi bir rahatlamaya ve geleceğe daha bir iyimserlikle bakmamızı sağlamıştır.

2019 da durağanlığa geçen üretim ve ticaret 2021 yılının sonlarında ekonominin tekrardan hareketlenmesi ile ortaya çıkan enerji talebi ve enerji azlığından dolayı fiyatlar dünya genelinde artış göstermiştir.

Petrol ve doğal gaz fiyatlarında oluşan  artışlar üretimi dolayısı ile ürünlerin fiyatlarını da doğrudan etkilemiştir. Bu artışlarda bize dünya genelindeki enflasyonun geçici bir durum olmayacağının göstergesi olmuştur.

Dünya ekonomisinin 2021’de girdiği toparlanma süreci ile enerjiye olan ihtiyacın fiyatlardaki artışı 2022 yılında da süreceği görüşü nettir. Bunun en önemli sebebi ise enerji arzını kısa sürede arttırmanın kolay olmayacağıdır. AB ülkeleri tarafından alınacak önlemler ve atılacak adımları fiyat ve doğalgaz arzındaki sıkıntıları azaltması büyük önem arz etmektedir..

Doğal gaza erişim tüm ülkelerin enerji politikalarının en önemli meselesi haline gelmiştir.

Enflasyon yani fiyat artışlarındaki sürekli artış artık dünyada bir çok ekonominin mücadele etmesi gereken önemli makro ekonomik göstergelerden birisi. Kovid-19 salgını nedeniyle tedarik zincirinde ortaya çıkan sorunlar, enerji arz ve talebi dengesizlikler ve tüm dünyada ekonomik toparlanma için piyasalara enjekte edilen paralar nedeniyle ilk başta geçici olduğu kabul edilse de enflasyon artık ekonomiler için kalıcı hale gelmiş durumda.

Bu sebeple özellikle 2022 yılı içerisinde tüm dünyada enflasyon ile mücadele ortamında daraltıcı para politikaları ve ABD’nin 2022 yılının ikinci yarısında yapması beklenilen faiz artışının gelişme durumunda olan ülkelerin politikalarının değişikliğine neden olacağı düşünülmektedir.

Corona Virüs salgınının çemberine aldığı önemli sorunlardan biride tedarik zincirinde yaşanan ve yaşanacak sıkıntılar olmuştur. Önümüzdeki süreçte bu yaşanan sıkıntıların devam edeceği fakat tedarik konusunda yeni arayışlar içerisine girileceği ve Çin ithalatına olan bağımlılığın azaltılması konusunda yeni stratejilerin belirlenmesi gerekliliği ortaya çıkmıştır.

Bu değişim ve atılacak adımları dünya ticaretini ve küresel büyümeyi etkileyecek unsurların başında gelmektedir.

Data visualization is far from new. It has a long tradition: geometry of statistics, spatialization of quantitative data, important surfaces and relationships, symbolism of colors, lines, hatching, etc.

Combining Information and Facts

While cartography is certainly one of the main forms of structured visualization, it distinguished itself with encyclopedia and enlightenment.

Subsequently, numerous visualizations were introduced that are still relevant today, including line chart and bar charts in 1786 or pie and circular charts in 1801.

This diversity exploded in the 2000s with spectacular visualizations produced from large volumes of data, for example animated bubble charts, to set the visual trends of our society.

In France, graphical semiology was established in the 1960s, which analyzes and predicts the formatting of data according to different matrices. This French current remained parallel to the American one.

Data visualization is now a techno-scientific field in its own right, with applications for decision support in medicine, marketing, economics as well as politics.

In November 2014, Paris hosted a global scientific event called IEEE VIS, which brought together three conferences.

The international research community, especially computer science, came together to compare rendering systems and visualization tools.

New Deals and Interactions

If data visualizations have proliferated today, it's because of computer capabilities and accessibility of screens. The ubiquity of a more synthetic visual regime complements the traditional more analytic text regime. Thus, abstract data becomes new entities to be understood and explored.

Finding One-way Solutions to Complex Problems

Finding solutions is easier with a growing number of data visualization tools that make them tangible. Information visualizations that have been corrected because they were previously in print become interactive at every stage.

Data from a wide variety of sources shows that: Government agencies, survey firms, non-government or private companies, data scientists, computer scientists, and mathematicians work in this field. By them, data is entered, extracted, processed and transformed.

This apparently rationalized and standardized process is associated with iterative loops, adjustments.

Next comes visualization with graphic artists and designers. Depending on the situation, computer graphics are stable. They show information or are animated with interactive videos.

Interaction disrupts the relationship with the world. Because it allows us to interact with it to gain more information, ideas or cross-check. It establishes another cognitive relationship with the data.

In particular, filters and functions aim to show or relate different aspects of the image presented for consultation. This visual reinforces the heuristic nature of informational works.

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From Complexity to Simplicity

If we always used visualization tools to make decisions, we could better understand how the world works and even create new matrices of possible choices.

In particular, the current context, the replication of big data and data pools requires all this information produced by the complexity of the digital and physical worlds to be made tangible and usable.

To tackle the immeasurable, data visualization can be a powerful tool for finding simple solutions to the challenges we face.

Although visualization is very much related to graphic design, it is based on visual perception and human fundamentals. These basics leave graphic designers room for creativity. However, it places strong restrictions on them as they are not adequately taught in graphic arts education.

Information visualization research studies the use of graphical and interactive computation to facilitate the understanding of abstract data.

This understanding often indicates that an error of interpretation, which is sometimes important, can have serious consequences. Therefore, interpretation of visualizations should be reliable and, if possible, fast.

Visual Perception and Cognition

To understand visualization, you must look at how visual perception and cognition work. Visualization has traditionally been a field of research in computer science, statistics, and cartography. But these are questions studied by cognitive psychology.

Graphical representation of quantitative data has been done for hundreds of years. But in the early 1970s it was a cartographer who laid the foundations for the graphical structure of visualization.

The entire visualization consists of signs whose visual appearance is arranged in a plane. It is governed by visual variables. Marks can take three forms: points, lines, and areas.

Six visual variables are helpful: size, density, texture density, color, direction, and shape. However, if the chart gives rules for the use of the system, it does not explain why and how the system works in terms of perception.

Contribution of Psychologists

Complying with other references in computer science, statistics, and graphic design, it has automated the conversion of data into images. In 1985, an American psychologist highlighted the reason for effective visualization.

He discovered that certain visual features can be perceived by the human eye very quickly, unconsciously and effortlessly. This feature is called fore-attention.

Therefore, looking at dots drawn on a paper or screen, it is very easy to see one or two red dots when most of the dots are blue. If you look at 10, 100, or 10,000 blue dots, the presence of a red dot is obvious.

It is shown that color pays attention to certain questions in advance. The radius of curvature is also predetermined. A square dot can easily be detected between rounded dots, provided they are large enough.

It is notable that a graphic presentation carefully answers questions beforehand. Because very quickly and almost independently of the number it becomes possible to reason on a large amount.

Conversely, the mental acquisition time of these data becomes proportional to their number if not pre-attentive. This applies to a list of city or person names in no particular order.

To know if there is a difference in the list, you should immediately read all the names as if you saw a red dot. A good visualization uses careful graphics features.

But the problem is not solved yet. Preattention features have their limits. Sometimes you need to carelessly display data beforehand. While it is easy to distinguish between blue and red, it is not possible to pre-search for colors beyond the 7 colors.

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So what should be done when it is necessary to distinguish more than 7 categories?

All fore-attention traits have their limits. They mix with each other. You cannot use more than one at the same time.

Also, when displaying points representing people or cities, it is customary to display the name next to the dot. However, reading the name does not involve pre-attention and does not aid in visual search.

Over the course of three decades, our societies have been marked by the gradual proliferation of layers of information implying a new kind of intelligibility of reality through the prism of data.

This new relationship with reality leads to reformulation of the way of grasping knowledge, of transmitting knowledge. It changes the relationship with its use. In the context of the growth and diversification of information, communication and referral media, visualization is poised to become a mass medium.

Definitions and Functions

Data visualization refers to any visual representation of data that facilitates the use, analysis, and communication of data. Information design and scientific visualization are subsets.

Information design in computer science refers to the effective presentation of information. It details the data and makes it possible to present it in a way that is well understood. The term is often associated with disciplines such as graphic design and data visualization.

When designing information, data analysts must consider the type of target audience. It is necessary to determine the most effective way to present the data to the target audience.

Information design can be compared to two other disciplines: information planning, which studies datasets and their relationship to goals, and information architecture, which governs how background information should be organized.

Information design already deals with structured data. Its role is to reveal this structure in a meaningful way. An example is the famous London Underground map, which was designed in 1931 and uses structured data.

Conversely, data visualization works on unstructured data to reveal its organization. Its role is embodied in the visibility of this structure.

This issue of distinction is therefore repositioned in functions specific to each of these disciplines. Data visualization is about organizing data visually, while information design is about giving meaning to it.

TRANSMITTING MEANING TO THE COMMUNITY

Information design results from a balance between scientific accuracy, aesthetics, cognitive efficiency, and accessibility issues determined by a context.

It reveals the relationship mechanisms such as continuity, similarity, closeness, order and proportionality. It creates a language arising from the expression of these main principles that activate the studies on shape, size, color and orientation.

Among the first graphical representations of data to date, the panel of representation modes and techniques has continued to grow: pictograms, pie charts, pie charts, timelines, tree maps, word clouds, cartography, 3D, photo-visualization, video, etc.

The 20th century introduced founding methods of representation, such as graphic semiotics, which created a universal and non-verbal language, Isotype, through easily interpretable symbols. The set of rules of a graphic sign system is looked at for information transfer.

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Data visualization challenges

The purpose of information design is to make information more accessible. But the promise of data visualization is to simplify access to structured information from complexity.

The aim, the challenge, is to make visible the social and material conditions specific to each production. On the one hand, it allows the identification, understanding and analysis of processes, software tools and databases.

It is also giving the user an active role in the process by allowing them to comprehend and process the data.

In any case, these levels are due to a significant acceleration compared to the previous period. However, the levels reached are very different. The parallelism between the levels and developments in the UK and the USA on the one hand, and France and Germany on the other, is striking.

Compared to the recalled observation at the European level, the results are surprising. It makes the UK an exception compared to the USA, which shows no signs of lag in the development of ICT.

The quality of work reflects the productivity of hours worked by personnel category. Here, gender, age and diploma were used as criteria for calculating the quality. The contribution of job quality, which was equivalent in the four countries in the 1995-2001 period, masks the different situations.

As a matter of fact, the slowdown in job quality in France and Germany is mainly due to the age component. It is the diploma describing the deterioration in quality in the United States.

The quality of work reflects the social policies implemented in France to promote youth employment. It illustrates stylized realities, such as the increase in employment of non-graduates in the United States.

In the UK, the share of graduates in employment has risen from a low level and job quality has accelerated over the past two decades.

Four countries show gains in total factor productivity. However, paradoxically, the country where these gains were weakest in the 1995-2001 period was the United States of America. In the 1990s, TFV gains accelerated in France, Germany, and the United States.

On the other hand, it has slowed down in the United Kingdom. however, it reached a very high level in the 1990-1995 period. In short, hourly labor productivity gains in the four countries studied are comparable.

However, ICT has a higher contribution in the United Kingdom and the United States. But this is offset by slower TFV gains.

The assessment of American TFP gains stands out from the few other studies in which they appear to be significantly higher for the years 1995-2001. This difference is explained by the databases and methods used.

The time series used here are taken from the database. As a result, the average annual growth rate of achieved hourly productivity was close to 1.92% during the 1995-2001 period.

Capital series reflect different approaches. Investment in ICT does not include communication equipment. Investment in IT includes office machinery.

Finally, it should be noted that it was obtained from a residual calculation in the evaluations and in all studies.

As for the methods, three important differences should be noted. Unlike most studies, the quality of the work is taken into account here. The results obtained are close to his own.

It results from a comparison of capital services with the capital stock, growth rate and share of capital costs in value added. Calculating this share requires user costs.

Calculating the latter involves a rate of return, a rate of depreciation, and possibly tax adjustments. On the other hand, when an internal rate of return is calculated, this equality is respected by definition.

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Finally, the biggest differences in the different approaches relate to the assessment of the share of the total capital charge in value added.

There are fundamental differences in the observed TFV assessments between the results presented here and those of other studies. This is due to the growth rate and the difference in the definition of the ICT set, the rate of return used.

Finally, the recession in the United States of America in 2001 affected the assessments.

The impact of the economic situation on the results deserves to be underlined. However, this recession has not prevented the progress of especially ICT investments from one period to the next.

Yaşam Ayavefe

By then, the simultaneous increase in ICT investments and total factor productivity (TFP) clearly demonstrated the existence of a causal relationship.

After this date, the perception of this connection has changed. Because after the bursting of the technology bubble, there was a great decrease in ICT investments. Despite this, the gains in TFV continued to be sustained in the 2001-2003 period.

In Europe, the discussion has largely focused on the lag compared to the United States in terms of investment and productivity gains in ICT between 1995-2001.

A debate arose over the source of the productivity gains. For some, these gains are largely concentrated in the consumer durables sector.

It finds a spread of productivity gains in the ICT-using industry, particularly in the trade and financial industries. These conflicting results from the same investment data highlight the difficulty of measuring hourly productivity growth and its various factors. Growth accounting provides a useful framework for examining the evolution of productivity.

Now let's look at the assessments made in this context for France, the United States, the United Kingdom, and Germany.

There are evaluation differences due to methodological differences between studies.

In particular, a measure of contributions to the growth of hourly productivity at the macroeconomic level has been proposed. Then, a detailed analysis is proposed for the sectors that produce and use ICT.

Few sectoral assessments have been made so far. The methodological problems are more acute as they are at the level of the economy as a whole. This makes comparisons difficult. However, sector analysis is interesting to us.

On the one hand, it makes it possible to embody the contribution of ICT to productivity gains. On the other hand, it is necessary to better assess how far these gains have spread beyond just the manufacturing sector.

Answering this question makes it possible to better predict the potential impact of these new technologies on the entire economy.

CONTRIBUTIONS TO INCREASING HOURHOUR WORKER PRODUCTIVITY

Described as generic technologies, ICTs are often compared to a third industrial revolution. They produce productivity gains that can improve the standard of living of countries likely to increase their growth potential.

However, some are skeptical about the ability of ICTs to produce major innovations that cause technological change.

These observations are made from the American example of the second half of the 1990s, when the strong contribution of ICT was associated with the acceleration of productivity growth.

Based on the Solow model, the growth accounting framework makes it possible to distinguish three main sources of growth in hourly labor productivity: increase in capital intensity (capital services by hours worked), increase in quality of work (labor services), and gains in overall factor productivity.

Within capital, more specifically the contribution from the use of ICT capital can be defined separately.

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Current analyzes

Between 1995 and 2001, hourly labor productivity gains in the United States averaged between 2% and 3%.

Europe seemed to follow the same dynamic as the United States. However, there is a delay that it has not been able to make up for so far. Compared to the previous five years, primarily hourly productivity and total factor productivity did not accelerate, on the contrary, they slowed down.

Later, the contribution of ICT capital intensity to hourly productivity growth also increased. This increase is much smaller than that observed in the United States.

Various reasons have been put forward to explain why Europe lags behind the United States in using ICT and accelerating TFP: a set of regulations that would delay ICT adoption in Europe, a complementary effort to reorganize work, etc.

Yaşam Ayavefe

The emergence of economic science since the XVIII century associated with Adam Smith. In the natural sciences, economics requires the study of the theories of the great economists.

Adam Smith was born June 5, 1723 in Scotland. From childhood he was distinguished by his ability to study, he entered the University of Glasgow, was awarded a scholarship. Outside of university, Adam Smith read additional books on political economy. His scientific work "The Theory of Moral Sentiments" in 1759 brought him fame.

In 1764 he left the pulpit and went on a journey. acquaintance during a trip with French philosophers was reflected in his work "A Study on the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations". When he returned to Scotland, A. Smith was completing work on The Wealth of Nations.

In his work "Study on the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations" identified the following problems: the economic development of society and the improvement of its well-being.

In the book, he gives the concept that the country's economy increases the wealth of the people with material resources.

His answer to the question which sphere in the economy is profitable, he assumes, on the one hand, the sphere of production, and, on the other hand, the development of agriculture.

Adam Smith emphasized that in order to influence the economy, it is important to take into account the interest of society, and not private interests. So he singles out the concept of "economic man" and "invisible hand".

The "invisible hand" directs "economic man to the best results, the higher goals of society. He believed that in order to support the economy and avoid mopolization, there must be free competition.

His invisible hand theory states:

consumers choose what to buy аnd manufacturers what to sell. How to produce products. He believes that competition keeps people from fraud.

value theory

А.Smith understood the concept of "use value" as the ability of an object to satisfy a person's need. At the time, many disagreed with his theory. A. Smith was prone to cost theory.

"The subject of economic science" in his opinion is the labor of a person of any kind and should be considered "productive".

Adam Smith sees money as a technical instrument of exchange. The income of workers is in direct proportion to the level of wealth of the country.

Adam Smith explained the economic relations of people as nature, whose goals may well not coincide with the interests of others. Adam Smith saw in a person all the flaws and weaknesses.

He showed that the wealth of the nation is created both in agriculture and trade, and in all types of industries that exist in the economy. The wrong approach of the rulers can hinder the growth of the country's wealth. If people work, then the country will prosper.

Yaşam Ayavefe

The characterization of these recent fluctuations and their causes is useful for many analyzes of growth prospects or inflationary pressures in industrialized countries.

The seminars held aimed to compare the diagnoses of differences. It offers a close look at productivity growth between the United States and other industrialized countries. This seminar brought together nearly forty European, American, and Japanese economists. Twelve studies were presented and discussed.

The discussions centered around four themes. The first theme is changes in productivity trends over time. First of all, the participants tried to identify the methodological difficulties and statistical problems posed by the productivity measurement and cross-country comparisons that could be made in this area.

Three other themes were then addressed:

• the role of various factors of production, particularly information and telecommunication technologies (ICT), in these developments;

• international comparisons of the sources of differences between countries and

• research on the determinants of productivity gains.

Measurement issues and certain diagnostic items turned out to look pretty solid. Therefore, in most countries, the share of productivity growth due to ICT production is quite comparable. 

On the other hand, productivity in other sectors accelerated in the United States during the 1990s and slowed elsewhere.

The acceleration in hourly productivity in the United States has contributed to the substitution of ICT capital for the workforce. At the same time, it gained a faster improvement in total factor productivity.

The slowdown in productivity in other industrialized countries has led to the substitution of non-ICT capital for labor at rates specific to each economy. This can be attributed to the decline in the quality of labor.

These two negative factors are slightly compensated by an acceleration. Replacing labor by ICT capital and accelerating TFP will be the solution. It is necessary to explain the extent to which non-ICT capital has slowed down. It should be aimed to extend the growth beyond the accounting breakdown.

The slowdown in job quality is not due, in part, to the expansion of these employment policies. It can also be associated with job creation dynamics with lower-than-average productivity.

Finally, the delay in the spread of ICT in Europe and Japan versus the United States is based on a large number of observations. But, it has not yet received a statistically sound explanation.

MEASUREMENT ISSUES

Uncertainties of efficiency measurement are eliminated. The researchers emphasize that methodological differences persist between Europe and the United States.

He stresses, however, that they do not interrupt Europe's catch-up with American productivity.

Among the differences in the resolution process, the measurement of GDP leads to a different split between end uses for military spending, financial services and software spending.

These three gaps contribute to raising US GDP relative to the GDP of the European Union; its effect in terms of productivity increase is weaker and more definite.

In addition, deflators in Europe are calculated, which have limited results on changes in dissolution and productivity. It mobilizes hedonic approaches and chain indices to varying degrees that are used more systematically in the United States.

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In the United States, productivity growth is present in the valuation method of financial and non-market services. It is incorrect to measure the labor factor by the total number of hours worked adjusted for the quality of work. It poses more problems with the quality of the underlying data than with the method.

Yaşam Ayavefe

In 2019, the GDP of developed countries is 74%.

The development of the service sector has led to an improvement in the quality of life of the population and accelerated the process of economic growth. The development of the service sector freed economic growth from dependence on the external economy.

In developed and developing countries The service sector plays an important role.This is explained by the fact that The service sector meets the needs of the people.

The development of the service sector also depends on what kind of wages workers receive. began to study the problems of development of the service sector. The development and expansion of types of services is one of the goals of people employed in this area.

Currently, the sphere of such services as banking, information and communication, and tourism is actively developing.

From information and communication services comes the development of mobile communications and the Internet.

the service industry is experiencing impact of economic, political, demographic factors. GDP France is 79.4%, Canada 66.5% In Great Britain and in the USA 80%, In Russia 65.2%.

The United States is the leader in the intensive development of the service sector. Next come the countries:UK, France, Canada, Italy.,

The service industry has changed over the years. In the beginning, there were not even half of the current types of services.

Additional needs for services have emerged as a result of urbanization.

IT in the service sector

The scientific and technological revolution acted to accelerate the development of services.

In some countries, employment in industry has declined and the number of workers in the service sector has increased. Most of all in Taiwan, in the UK and the USA.

lag behind in the development of the service sector of Western Europe. Western Europe focuses on the manufacturing industry.

service industry growth,has an impact on the level of employment. the largest part is occupied by healthcare, education, culture, trade and science, art and catering, , etc.

Yaşam Ayavefe

The study carried out on the G7 countries makes it possible to show the differences in growth and the contributions of labor and capital factors by activating a homogeneous set of prices.

So, he can see the differences in productivity growth between the United States on the one hand and European countries, Canada and Japan on the other. It shows that it is mainly related to the contribution of non-ICT investments.

Indeed, in all countries, a very strong momentum in the contribution of ICT was observed over the period 1980-2001 (although there are significant differences between countries).

In contrast, the contribution of non-ICT capital accumulation accelerated only in the United States.

In addition, the contribution of job quality to hourly productivity growth slowed between 1989-1995 and 1995-2001. It developed in roughly a similar fashion in all countries.

Finally, it shows that total factor productivity (TFP) has accelerated sharply in the ICT producing sector (in all G7 countries). In all countries except Canada, the TFP growth rate in the ICT producing sector exceeds that of other sectors.

There is debate about the nature of TFP, which can be seen as a remnant or a reflection of technological progress.

In addition, there are strong economic assumptions on which growth accounting is based, and inevitable weaknesses in the data used, on the other. The results highlight its more or less approximate nature.

For example, is it really reliable to cross-reference employment composition by gender, age, and qualifications when constructing a labor quality index?

Finally, there are investments in research and development in standard growth accounting approaches.

Efficiency, Innovation and ICT in Old and New Europe

The productivity of Central and Eastern European countries seems to be converging towards European Union countries. Much of this convergence, however, can be attributed to the improvement in labor productivity with the disappearance of legacy production.

The authors compare the evolution of labor productivity in sectors that produce and use ICT and other industries.

Compared to EU countries, ICT usage activities in Central and Eastern European countries contribute more to productivity gains.

For the authors, this observation characterizes the first stage in the convergence process where they achieve rapid productivity gains.

This phenomenon should see its effects wear off with the end of economic restructuring in these countries.

It is necessary to consolidate these gains in the second phase of catching up with the EU. Further improvements need to be made, particularly in services, in terms of workforce training and restructuring within companies. This will accelerate productivity gains.

The Ministry of Finance, while discussing this issue, contributes entirely from an accounting point of view. We can definitely say that the growth of Central and Eastern European countries is higher. ICT contributes positively to this growth.

What is less certain is whether ICT today contributes more to growth in Central and Eastern Europe than growth in EU15 countries. Some results show the opposite.

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In this sense, productivity gains in Central and Eastern European countries essentially need to be restructured. ICT does not seem to make a positive contribution to reducing the productivity gaps between the two regions.

Therefore, the question of the technological specialization of these countries remains open: the countries of Central and Eastern Europe currently look more like Greece than Ireland. This suggests that the time it takes for these countries to catch up could be as long as thirty years.

Yaşam Ayavefe

Unemployment and inflation are the most important economic problems for almost each country. There is both economic and politic configuration started in all around the world. The limitation of capital movements is the one of the most important reason. Economists think that free trade is going to bring the prosperity. Free capital movements in last 15 years created this belief. Some economists think that limiting capital inflows to developing countries need to be considered.

Capital inflows support the elimination of country’s economic deficit. In capital markets, financial existing’s trades happen. Fort his reason, investors need to calculate the future gains’ current status. This empowers the speculative movements’s effects. Hence, this speculative movements increase thesize of fluctiation.

I f an investor makes a mistake in his/hers desicion, then it effects all markets, whole economy and even the whole region. Fort he above reasons investors and whole world need to decide correctly and move smarter.

Countries give priority to the objectives of increasing the existing employment. The role of production and employment is of great importance for the country to reach a high income level. In order for the country to reach a high income level, the unemployment rate must be at a minimum level.

Inflationary environment means an increase in the general price level. Unemployment is considered the opposite of employment. Unemployment rate is important for economy. The unemployment rate is also accepted as a critical indicator of the labor market. However, the constant increase in the prices of some products is not related to the definition of inflation.

Inflation means;

• reflection of price increases to the general price of goods and services
• constant price increase
• price increases that will have an impact on the economy

The inflation rate is measured by the price index. Unemployment and inflation is a problem that countries have had since ancient times. The Phillips Curve was created by Alban Williams Phillips in order to understand the unemployment-inflation relationship correctly. Phillips Curve also shows that there is a negative relationship between unemployment-inflation variables.

G8 COMMUNITY

G8 Summits are an event where industrialized, rich and powerful countries come together once a year to discuss national and international economic problems. Macroeconomic management, international trade and relations with developing countries are some of the topics discussed at the G8 summit. The G8 also directly affects financial and commercial institutions.

Decisions made by G8 leaders affects the policies of international organizations such as;

• World Bank
• International Monetary Fund
• OECD
• World Trade Organization
• North Atlantic Treaty Organization

The most important reason why the decisions taken by the G8 leaders can affect the decisions of many international organizations is due to their economic power.

The world economy is entering a new era. In the first stages, there was a period of low growth and deflation, and in the last stages, a period of weak growth and zero inflation and finally, there was a period of accelerated growth and low inflation. The reason for the rapid growth of the global economy is global industrial production. Global industry data reached the highest values in the last 8 years today. There are some subtopics that continue this upward trend such as;

• production in industry,
• new orders,
• export orders received and employment indicators

Industrial production is very strong in developed countries. Along with the effects we have mentioned, it has been observed that there is a significant squeeze in the euro-dollar parity. With this information, global stagflation is expected in the future, with the combination of the slowdown in the economy and high inflation.

Yaşam Ayavefe

A traditional position that enjoys a clearly defined, recognized status within the organization. Today, it is shaken by the development of the Internet and the proliferation of information resources. New occupations or new assignments, such as information and records managers, are occupying the space.

From now on, strictly limited occupations; The distinction between documentarian, archivist and librarian is blurring.

There are more and more meeting points. A profession like a document controller shows this blurring of boundaries.

In this function, the professional must manage the entire lifecycle of the document, from collection to archiving, including indexing.

Faced with information-obesity, librarians and documentarians must increasingly act as information mediators. Like a watchman, they should present information to the user at the right time according to their needs or improvise as information managers.

Today we will face very different realities. The decision makers, who are unaware of the subtleties of different titles, do not pay much attention to these differences.

Visibility and Skill Development Difficulty

In order to improve their work, the information professional must increasingly grasp the issue of their visibility or service. A user should bring his community together like an administrator.

With the help of new media and web technologies we now have a set of tools that make its versatility possible. Indeed, the Internet allows for creating spaces for curation, communicating on selected information, etc. makes it possible.

If he already has technical knowledge management skills, continuous training, it seems necessary to acquire and develop new skills in the face of all these difficulties.

Skills such as project management, management or information law are becoming more and more important to thrive in the professional world.

The development of these skills is not necessarily present in primary education. Few train future professionals in management, department management, managing teams, and keeping budgets.

Adapting existing training courses is therefore a real challenge. It is necessary to deal with the heterogeneity of the needs of the organizations. It would be interesting to design an initial training that promotes interdisciplinarity.

It is important to provide students with a common core around core knowledge topics. It is important to provide a solid foundation in librarianship or archival science, as well as in foreign languages, which are essential today.

There are also specificities in convergence between professions, mostly digital and data-oriented.

Beyond the common interdisciplinary core, it is important to offer several possible courses depending on the specialization desired.

At this point, the North American institutions and especially the I-Schools network seem to be leading the way.

In France, the National School of Information and Library Sciences follows the same path, offering a common core in the first year and then a specialization of your choice in business information management, archiving, library and cultural mediation.

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It is important to support the development of the skills of already active professionals and to follow the evolution of the profession.

It is also important to design continuing education courses, diplomas, to allow for example a librarian or a documentarian to develop into a data role.

A new form of education, Moocs allows training throughout the professional life and the perfecting or acquisition of additional skills such as project management.

Yaşam Ayavefe

There has been a gap in productivity growth in the United States and the United Kingdom since the mid-1990s. The possible causes were examined one by one, and it was concluded that ICT has an important role.

These would represent generic technology in the United States. Investment in these technologies can be combined with investment in, for example, training and organizational-related intangibles.

This makes it possible to accelerate productivity through the overhaul of production processes. The absence of such a phenomenon in the UK can be explained by subsequent investments in ICT.

Researchers dispute the existence of the General-Purpose Technology effect. According to them, there is a reason for the difference in productivity growth in the United States and the United Kingdom.

It is linked to the sharp decline in the contribution of capital intensity to productivity growth in the non-ICT sectors in the UK after 1995.

The reliability of the data in question is to create a data that allows for international productivity comparisons.

Outsourcing and Increased Productivity

From 1993 to 2001, attempts were made to establish production-based accounts and thus to identify sources of productivity. A voluminous sectoral database on productivity was created in Germany by IFO.

The authors say that it is not possible to take sectoral value added as an approximate measure of gross output. Because this leads to an overestimation of TFV. The two measures of TFP by value added or production differ according to the importance of imported inputs in production.

There is a relative gap between growth in output and value added and between the two measures. This is explained by international subcontracting processes, in which imported inputs have increased significantly in German production.

There are differences between productivity measures using value added and those based on production. Many differences may also come from other sources, such as the existence of cost savings.

Only in the absence of such a phenomenon will the authors' hypothesis be correct. In the case of Spain under study, only three sector economies of scale are presented. This puts the weight of this criticism in perspective.

Economic Growth of Japan and The United States in The Information Age

Japanese national account data, specifically GDP, is adjusted at around 20,000 billion yen (150 billion euros), or 3.7 percent. The aim is to make it comparable to the American data obtained.

The components of growth are then analyzed using the standard growth accounting approach and a capture model. (Production probability limit approach)

Thus, the end of Japan's catch up with the US in the late 1990s would not be due to lower gains in TFV. Because, on the contrary, it will increase more in Japan than in the USA.

The results will be largely the same in both countries. However, it will contribute to the slowdown in the quality of work and the replacement of labor by non-ICT capital.

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These results would be similar to those of the available literature on the subject, except for the contribution of TFV to Japanese growth, which has traditionally been estimated at much lower levels.

There is a need to very carefully specify the sources and creation methods of the data.

The general discussion has a link to the previously presented work. The arrest of the United States is not due to differences in TFV gains. But it confirms the idea that it will be due to differences.

Yaşam Ayavefe

Libraries are required to appoint a researcher in computer science on the use of electronic resources. Quantitative work, jointly conducted by a librarian in charge of collections, is an opportunity to draw attention.

A researcher has been organizing and managing university documents for both education and research for only 20 years.

The increase in power in the supply of digital documentation especially for research in the 2000s succeeded in creating multimedia collections from the start. It made it possible to access information quickly.

There were some obstacles to the development and evaluation of a reasoned documentary policy. These barriers are the unevenness of statistics provided by publishers and the lack of information on the use of digital resources.

There is an increasingly tight budget that requires being selective and sometimes forced to make sharp choices. In hopes of rectifying this, an ambitious project has been implemented.

Comprehensive data collection is targeted. Backed by a solid methodology. It also made it possible to prepare the first quantitative use inventory.

Thus, two complementary approaches were followed in parallel:

• top-down approach, which consists of synthesizing statistical reports provided by the publishers of the resources, and
• bottom-up approach that searches for traces of users from log files.

Data Collecting

The first phase of the project is the data collection phase, an undertaking known for its time-consuming and tedious nature. It requires researching their administrative platform one by one to read statistics and download reports. Unlike publisher data, obtaining log data inside the library is just a formality.

It is necessary to deal with the offers of services and tools offered by the editors, through a wide variety of interfaces, mainly in English. (help for navigating the platform, offers for selection and personalization of consultation measures, etc.).

Through the choice of data format and the observation time of the reports, it is necessary to create automatic integration of these files into a spreadsheet or database.

It is also necessary to be familiar with the many non-standard terminologies used by publishers to characterize uses and establish equivalences.

As many publishers still do not have a platform, certain requests must be sent to some, sometimes repeatedly, to receive consultation statistics via email.

Other figures and information are also required to supplement the general information available to users when they authenticate themselves.

To obtain them, it is necessary to demonstrate excellent legal knowledge of the use of personal data.

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Behaving Consistently

After collection, the data is consolidated. It is compiled into a coherent and usable whole. You need to be patient while processing the data. Because presentations may be different or contain surprises.

Therefore, even in the face of so-called normalized statistical reports, we can observe strange and unexpected changes in shape.

Spreadsheet mastery is required. That of a database management system is really difficult to process the usage track of around 40,000 rows generated from the reports.

This stage of the work requires an undeniable technique. It also provides the AnalogIST platform and ezPaarse3 software that translates log files into advisory activities.

This outsourcing of the tedious and technical part of the work is beneficial. This allows the analyst to refocus on results and illuminate them with his expertise.

Yaşam Ayavefe

COVİD-19’UN EKONOMİYE ETKİLERİ

Covid 19 salgınının gündelik yaşamı değiştirdiğine hiç şüphe yok. Burada sorulması gereken hayatımızda ki bu değişikliklerin kaçı kalıcı olacak? Covid-19 salgını son bulduğunda hayat nasıl devam edecek? Yıkılan ekonomik dengeler nasıl düzene girecek? Yeni bir ekonomik yapılanma nasıl olacak? Dünya devletleri arasında ki ekonomik dengeler nasıl şekillenecek?

Tabi ki burada öncelik sırasına bakıldığında işsizlik ve ekonominin geleceği çok büyük önem arz etmektedir.

Salgının tüm devletler üzerindeki en olumsuz etkisi işsizlik üzerine olmuştur. Bu salgın ortaya çıktığında ilk alınan önlemler arasında devletlerin OHAL ilanı ile evlere kapanma gibi tedbirler almaya mecbur bırakmıştı.

Gelirlerinde yüzde 90’lara kadar gerileme yaşayan sektörlerde işten çıkarmalar ve süreli/süresiz izin vermelere gidildi. Küba ve Kuzey Kore hariç bütün ülkelerde işsizlik görülmemiş oranlara ulaştı..

Küresel krizin yaşandığı 2008 yılından sonra 2020 yılının başlarına kadar tüm dünyada işsizlik oranı düşüş trendine girmişti. Hatta 2019 yılının sonlarına doğru gelişmiş ekonomiler de  bu oran %4.79 dünya genelinde ise %5,39 seviyelerinde görünmekteydi. 2020 yılında bu rakam dünya genelinde %6.48 gibi bir rakamda 2021 yılı sonlarında ise %9.8 gibi görünmekteydi.

Elde edilen veriler  bize gösteriyor ki gelişmekte olan ve gelişmiş ülkelerde ki işsizlik oranı son 14 yılın en yüksek seviyelerinde seyretmiştir. Sağlıkta ve ekonomik anlamda devletlerin yaptığı çalışmalarda aşılama ve işverenlere yapılan mali destekler ile önümüzde ki süreçte bu işsizlik oranının azalma eğiliminde olacağını düşünebiliriz.

Küresel ekonomi, 2021’de covit-19 varyantları ile birlikte hafife alınmayacak ortaya çıkan enflasyon dalgası ,gıda ve enerji sıkıntıları ile mücadele etmiştir. Günümüzde ise bu sıkıntı ve problemlerin yanında Amerika Birleşik Devletlerinin Merkez Bankasının sıkılaştırma politikasının ortaya çıkaracağı etkiler ve bazı bölgesel sorunlar mercek altına alınacaktır.

Geçmişten günümüze gelen ve geleceğe taşınacak olan bölgesel problemler küresel ekonominin karşılaması gereken riskler olacak. Çin ile Amerika Arasında ki Tayvan gerilimi –Ukrayna ile Rusya arasında ki yaşananlar bunlar arasında öne çıkan başlıklar oluyor.

Süper güç olarak nitelendirilen ülkeler arasındaki gerilim dünyanın en büyük iki ekonomisi arasında ki ilişkileri dondurmuş ve bir çok ülkeyi etkileyecek yaptırımlar doğmuştur. Türkiye’de erken seçim olasılığı ve Türk lirasındaki sert kayıplar Brezilya seçimleri de dünya ekonomisini takip edecek olanların yakından izleyeceği gelişmeler olacaktır.

Second, ecological economics seeks to understand ecosystems, nature and the biosphere in their specificity, based on an interdisciplinary approach.

Confronted with the environmental crisis, standard economists define market failure and externalities as consistent with their own analytical framework. They think that the fundamental problem is the economic recognition of the environment at its fair value.

Therefore, their efforts are focused on the development of new concepts. (Recognition, use values ​​as well as non-use or asset values, option values, inheritance values ​​and the most convenient methods for converting them into a monetary form).

If the environment, whether commercial or non-commercial, is properly grasped at these prices, the accounts of the intermediaries will no longer be compromised. The allocation of resources, including those provided by the environment, will become optimal again.

In the eyes of standard theorists, there is no absolute scarcity of environmental resources to be feared, only relative scarcity, contrary to what the first report suggested.

 One resource can always take the place of another if a correctly established price system makes it possible to manage them. This approach, which constitutes the “economics of the environment and natural resources”, develops a research program to apply the concepts and tools of the standard economy. This program adopts a “diffuse” approach.

This perspective is challenged by ecological economics. This insists on the fact that environmental externalities are the rule, not the exceptions, of the market economy. There is an interpretation in this area: "The monetary economy is a small boat bobbing in an ocean of uncertain and future externalities".

As a result, there are continuous cost transfers between social groups, between regions and between generations, with large differences between private and social costs.

Therefore, it is difficult to attribute to prices the objectivity that some economists attribute to them, especially when it comes to understanding and harmonizing our relationships with the biosphere.

Thus, ecological economists argue for the need to give a place to the analysis of physical flows in order to objectify social relations with the biosphere.

Thus, ecological economics studies the interactions between the economy and the biophysical functioning of the Earth on which the economy depends. It builds on the theoretical and methodological influences that emerged in the 1960s and 1970s.

Systemic thinking, which studies complex systems and their interrelationships, advocates understanding the relationships between the biosphere, the sphere of human activities, and economic activities.

It also makes it possible to use categories, the principle of systemic ecology and thermodynamics (especially the entropy principle).

The evolution of systems towards disorder lays the foundations for the analysis of energy and material flows that cross ecosystems. Some researchers offer an analysis that it will change economic and social systems.

Finally, institutionalist approaches offer a well-argued critique of standard economics. It also complements this foundation by opening up to an interdisciplinarity that extends to the humanities and social sciences.

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Ecological economics therefore relies on an approach between the social sciences and the natural sciences in understanding the specifics of the environmental problem.

The natural sciences are part of a holistic approach that considers phenomena as a whole, not separately. It combines the principles of the natural sciences with a broader view of economics. It also takes into account issues of justice as well as social and political aspects.

It was institutionalized with the establishment of the International Society for Ecological Economics (ISEE), an association formed in 1989. This association currently has more than a thousand members.

Yaşam Ayavefe

In other words, and to enlarge the line, everything must be done through a neoliberal "employment" of public action in this field of having any kind of job. This shows that in the governmental regime, intermediation is in many cases mainly destined for commercial inclusion. It uses professional integration and the integration possibilities of its buyers to its detriment.

The triangulation of the education-employment relationship can be associated with the general trend put forward at the beginning of the series: socializing, even disciplining, by preparing for forms of employment and employment conditions that have been permanently removed from the standard wage.

Rather than being a tool to combat unemployment and insecurity, intermediation may structurally represent another intermediate stage between unemployment and quality employment. Accompanying in companies, or by educational institutions, is an additional step within the "path of integration" to its multiple configurations and hazards.

Through the income received, it will also be similar to other forms of intermediation, despite the potential positive effects on buyers. Like temporary employment companies, the workforce needs to be recruited and provided.

In this sense, intermediation will strengthen the under-management by providing ready-to-use skills to employers without having to bear the cost of production.

The four contributions in this paper put this general hypothesis to the test: both confirming it, giving it substance, and observable depending on the devices, each with its own history. This makes it possible to contribute to perspective through variations.

Socio-historical and localized analysis is therefore privileged. Research shows some of the potential for intermediation on Economic Cooperation, first of all, in terms of collective governance.

The analysis focuses on a form of local productive ecosystem that organizes cooperation between social and solidarity economy structures, public and private actors.

It is intended to mediate through a sectoral approach that aims to go beyond pooling resources and create new records of regional cooperation.

It outlines the political and economic processes at work and examines the forms and effects of intermediation on the local labor market.

The benefit of the mediation put into practice here is that it is considered and reappropriated locally, on the one hand, and in terms of a system of actors that cannot be reduced to the support provided on the other.

 It should be said that this double localized approach at the regional and sectoral level has led to insistence on the detailed nature of the results obtained by the authors.

Indeed, in this configuration, it shows how mediation allows its development in the service of regional development towards eco-social goals.

However, it is necessary to expand it with a precise analysis of its long-term effects, especially on professionals. Evaluation of their effects draws primarily from the literature on placement and agency schemes, which focuses on measuring their capacity to provide employment or return to work.

It is also necessary to identify the social conditions and possibilities of transferability of such mediation use to other regions and other sectors. Because there is a struggle against a hundred-year-old taboo.

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Thus it represents an updated contemporary form of this political, economic and social legacy. Today, the actors coming together are expected to act as a counterweight to the neoliberal logic of employment at all costs.

Yaşam Ayavefe

Recruitment, training and actions within the employment structure are intertwined concepts. In this article, we are effectively witnessing the improvement of clearly articulated systems.

Each in their own way seeks to assume both a connected dimension (placement) and an affirming dimension (education). Sometimes they try to separate themselves from their reasoning, which is seen as disqualifying.

Regardless, it is thought that professional experience and its recognition with a certificate provide added value to both buyers and companies seeking qualified workforce.

This rapprochement between the two stakeholders may include an educational institution, a collective entity (including the various employers involved in recruitment), or a company. (a company e.g. salary and training to previously isolated self-employed)

This is a system that combines theoretical learning at school with hands-on training in a company. It is expected to promote coordination between education supply and job demand, as well as between employer groups and integration and qualification.

There is a specific form of employer group that was created in the agricultural sector in 1985 and then spread to other sectors of activity. This directly recruits target groups to present to member companies through organization through work study contracts, integration and qualification.

The principle here is recourse to the group employing the employee provided to the company (de facto employer), "third party employer", regardless of whether he is a member of the group or not.

The development of apprenticeships is in the light of the development of the "competence" ideology that underpins vocational and continuing education policies.

Proximity to the business world and transition periods to companies are expected to respond to the lack of professional experience and training of some young people, the unemployed and those in exile.

Indeed, this presence in the artistic and cultural sectors confirms that questions of education and integration have been extended to relatively autonomous areas and graduates in the job market.

In other words, the various triangular forms of labor mobilization have the same purpose as adjusting individual qualifications that may not be suitable for targeted occupations.

“Qualification” or “Convenience”?

Let's focus on the mediation process, its actors, its logic, and its effects. First of all, this process is a matter of integrating devices into analysis aimed at the link between public responsibility and education.

This excludes other types of agents, such as temporary employment agencies. The action also applies to different types of intermediations that are not mainly related to vocational training and integration. However, this area of ​​research, which is relatively new in approach, should be wide-ranging.

Mediation, as considered here, potentially encompasses a wide variety of forms: apprenticeships, activity and employment cooperatives, traditional employers' group, IAE, paid transport, etc.

Rather, the third-party employer figure directly or indirectly relates supply and demand for employment. It aims to secure, question and empirically nurture integration and career paths.